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THE PSYCHOLOGY OF 
SPECIAL ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 



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THE PSYCHOLOGY 

OF SPECIAL ABILITIES 

AND DISABILITIES 






BY 



AUGUSTA F. BEONNEE, Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, JUVENILE PSYCHOPATHIC INSTITUTE 
CHICAGO 



NON -REFER! 

1 

i 

Q3S 




BOSTON 

LITTLE, BEOWN, AND COMPANY 

1917 



,Bgi 



Copyright, 1917, 
By Little, Brown, and Company. 



All rights reserved 
Published, March, 1917 



4 

MAS 28 1917 



Set up and electrotyped by J. S. dishing Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 
Presswork by S. J. Parkhill & Co., Boston, Mass., U.S.A. 



'CI.A460070 



PREFACE 

With the ever increasing demand in education for 
recognition of the individual rather than the mass, it is 
remarkable that no attempt has been made as yet to 
formulate specifically the problems of specialized abili- 
ties and disabilities. On the side of mental defect, 
interest is centered so largely on testing and caring for 
individuals of general low intelligence that the problems 
of narrower types of defect have been neglected and 
still are largely misunderstood. Some writers have 
touched upon related questions, mainly in referring to 
the fact of individual differences in mental capacities, 
but only general statements are to be found ; nowhere 
else have special defects been outlined and nowhere can 
one find even enumeration of the types of variation that 
are practically important. 

In this book an attempt has been made to discuss 
practical aspects of special abilities and disabilities, to 
offer in detail methods of attacking problem-cases, and to 
present various types, both (a) of particular disabilities 
in those who have normal general ability and (£>) of 
particular abilities in those who are below normal in 
general capacities. The great tendency of to-day in 
the psychological study of individuals is to make gen- 
eral diagnoses, stressing particularly the defects that 



VI PREFACE 

are found. But there is also great value in discovering 
abilities which exist and in endeavoring to base con- 
structive measures on them. 

It is fully recognized that many of the questions con- 
cerning special abilities and disabilities cannot yet be 
solved. It is hoped, however, that the present discus- 
sion will lead to appreciation of the need for greater 
study in this field and will stimulate other efforts in 
this direction. 

The whole presentation of the subject is based on the 
experience that many case-studies have afforded. In 
the selection of cases, in the analysis of the material, 
and, indeed, in the preparation of the entire book I 
have been greatly helped by Doctor William Healy, to 
whom I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness for 
inspiration, encouragement, and wise counsel. 

AUGUSTA F. BRONNER. 

Chicago, 
October, 1916. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTE3 PAGE 

Preface v 

I The Problem 1 

II iMethods of Diagnosis 12 

III Differential Diagnosis . . . . . . .23 

IV Some Present Educational Tendencies . . 40 
V Special Defects in Number Work . . .50 

VI Special Defects in Language Ability . . •* 75 
VII Special Defects in Separate Mental Processes 118 

VIII Defects in Mental Control 166 

IX Special Abilities with General Mental Sub- 
normality 196 

X General Conclusions 220 

Appendix — Records of Psychological Examination . 229 
Index 265 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF 

SPECIAL ABILITIES AND 

DISABILITIES 

CHAPTER I 

The Problem 

That human beings have particular abilities and dis- 
abilities varying more or less — and frequently varying 
greatly — from the level of normal capacity, is a fact of 
much psychological interest as well as of great practical 
educational and social significance. In recent years 
psychologists have concerned themselves quite as much 
with individual differences as with the formulation of 
general laws. They have been interested in the varia- 
bilities that exist in any group, as well as in the common 
trends that are shown. They have laid down the general 
principle that all men differ in all traits. Thorndike has 
stated again and again that there is no "typical mind"; 
that differences exist at birth and increase with progress 
toward maturity. "Individuality is already clearly 
manifest in children of school age. The same situation 
evokes widely differing responses ; the same task is done 

1 



2 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

at differing speeds and with different degrees of success ; 
the same treatment produces differing results." * 

Experimental studies of different mental processes have 
led to the conclusion that, in all of their abilities, the ma- 
jority of individuals cluster about an average ; the greater 
the divergence from the average, the smaller the number 
of individuals found. One practical corollary of this 
general truth is, that while most people can adjust them- 
selves satisfactorily to ordinary situations, there are some 
so far removed from the average that they are ill-ad- 
justed under these same circumstances. It is to these 
persons, numerically in the minority, yet forming a class 
socially very significant, that injustice is done in the pres- 
ent state of affairs. It is they who are often misunder- 
stood, neglected, allowed to remain with their best pos- 
sibilities undeveloped. It is for them, the individuals 
with particular abilities and disabilities, we would be- 
speak intelligent consideration. Among educators the 
most discerning thinkers have recognized this group as 
one meriting special consideration. "The cry for in- 
dividual adjustment has become a shibboleth among the 
reformers," says Suzzallo, but, alas, the cry has met little 
response in action. 

Only when variations are extreme have they been recog- 
nized ; the organization of special classes and institutions 
for the crippled, the deaf, the blind, the feeble-minded, 
and the epileptic, has been a step in the right direction. 
However, this will not suffice; variations less obvious, 
but equally as significant, can no longer be entirely disre- 
garded. To classify all persons into groups of the normal 
or the defective is altogether inadequate for the purposes 
of education and other social adjustments. Yet, at pres- 
ent, this is exactly what is almost universally done. Chil- 
dren are placed either in groups of the normal and taught 

i Thorndike, E. L., "Individuality", 1911. 



THE PROBLEM 3 

accordingly, or are placed in special classes for defectives 
and taught by methods supposedly adapted to their given 
type. But, if there are particular abilities and disabilities 
in various mental traits, no such division of method will 
suffice to educate all in the best way. 

Study of the correlations that exist between different 
mental traits is another field of experimentation that 
bears upon our problem. These studies, made by Spear- 
man, 1 by Pearson, 2 Burt, 3 Thorndike, 4 and others, have 
shown that the possession of ability in one direction in- 
creases the probability of possessing ability in other 
directions. But correlations are far from perfect, and 
no one denies that in some cases superiority in one trait 
may be accompanied by actual incapacity or specialized 
defect in other traits. Hence the statement that in gen- 
eral correlations in mental life are positive offers no criti- 
cism to the finding of special abilities and special defects. 
Indeed, such findings are quite in accord with those laws 
of mental life which are at present known. 

That many facts concerning mental life have not yet 
been discovered will be readily conceded. One contri- 
bution that the study of problem-cases will no doubt 
make is to the better understanding of the normal func- 
tioning of mental processes. It has been largely through 
the study of pathological conditions that knowledge of 
physiology has been increased. The observation of results 
following disease, injury, or defects of special parts of the 
central nervous system, has been one of the chief means of 

1 Spearman and Krueger, "Die Korrelation zwischen verschiedenen 
geistigen Leistungsfahigkeiten." Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 44, 1906. 

s Pearson, K., "On the Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape 
of Head and to Other Physical and Mental Characters." Biometrika, 5, 
1907. 

3 Burt, Cyril, " Experimental Tests of General Intelligence." British 
Journal of Psychology, 3, 1909. 

4 Thorndike, E. L., "Heredity, Correlation and Sex Differences in 
School Abilities." "Columbia University Contributions to Philosophy", 
etc., XI, 1903. 



4 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

gaining knowledge about its structure and functioning. 
Perhaps analogous methods might prove as valuable in 
the understanding of psychological problems, for much is 
yet to be learned of the processes underlying complex 
mental activities. Until laws concerning the processes 
involved in actual performance have been scientifically 
established, individual adjustments cannot be made 
rationally and successfully. 

Let us see how inadequately the problem of individual 
adjustment is being met at the present time, first, from 
the point of view of the school. According to our present 
practice, the child enters school without his particular 
characteristics or idiosyncrasies being known to the 
teacher. Nowhere is opportunity offered for any definite 
study of the individual, and except as peculiarities and 
variations from the rest of the class are so extreme as to 
attract attention, differences among members of the 
group remain unknown. Of course, obvious traits are 
learned as time goes on, but the recognition of even these 
depends on the astuteness of the teacher, her interest in 
the pupils, her powers of observation and judgment. 
That such subjective standards are inaccurate, often 
false, we know by experimental studies which have 
been made where judgments of various teachers in regard 
to the same pupil are found to vary greatly. 

Certain it is that the more subtle characteristics, which 
often are most important practically, remain unknown. 
Comments regarding character, mental make-up, unusual 
traits are rarely made, and when made, are not always 
considered worth recording. The next year the class 
passes on to another teacher ; whatever information had 
been garnered previously is lost ; all that is usually noted 
is the achievement in the different school subjects in 
terms of a scale of numbers or letters whose values are 
determined arbitrarily, according to each individual 



THE PROBLEM 5 

teacher's subjective standard. Usually not a word is 
appended concerning the dozen and one observations 
that even the most obtuse teacher must have made of 
each individual child, though these might save weeks or 
even months of maladjustment for the child and confusion 
and misunderstanding on the part of the next teacher. 
What a waste of knowledge gained through the daily 
experience of a whole school year ! 

If it were practicable to have each child studied in such 
a way as to reveal his best possibilities and talents, that is, 
if there were scientific educational diagnoses, it is quite 
conceivable that much more might be accomplished even 
with bright children than is now the case. And where 
there has not been obvious failure, we do not know how 
much greater success might have been achieved under 
circumstances more favorable to the individual's develop- 
ment. As conditions now are, some children learn be- 
cause they are fortunate enough to receive good training ; 
no doubt many more learn in spite of poor training, or, 
at least, training not adapted to their individual needs; 
others, because of unrecognized innate peculiarities, do 
not progress satisfactorily at all. 

Every teacher knows the child who merely drags along, 
yet seems in general fairly bright. Then, there is the 
child who does very well in some subjects, but who is 
exceedingly retarded in others. Procedure in regard to 
these children varies ; in some schools, when a child is a 
failure in some one school subject, he is pushed ahead in 
spite of this, with the consequence that in this subject 
he falls farther and farther behind the class. In other 
schools children are not promoted unless the results in 
all the school studies are satisfactory. In such cases the 
child fails of promotion again and again, although capable 
of advancing in some studies, with the dire effects that 
result from discouragement, from associating with younger 



b PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

children, and without even the compensation of being 
helped to master his difficulties. 

i We are not here considering the case of the generally 
stupid child who is an out-and-out school failure, who shows 
no ability in any one of the school subjects, who cannot 
maintain his position in the class. Such children have 
now the benefit of special classes, designated by various 
names. However, there is little recognition of the type 
of problem that we have in mind, and arrangements for 
meeting it are not at all common. In most instances the 
child is carried on in the class without even an under- 
standing of the exact nature of the trouble. 

The results of the present haphazard, irrational pro- 
cedure are often serious ; they lead to loss of interest in 
school work in general, to discouragement and feeling of 
inefficiency which frequently lie at the root of disciplinary 
problems. The step from this to truancy is easily made, 
and from that to more serious delinquency. Educational 
dissatisfaction is a very frequent beginning of what may 
develop into a long career of misdeeds. From our studies 
of delinquents we believe that misunderstanding and neg- 
lect of children with particular abilities and disabilities 
leads to truancy and thence to consequences the seri- 
ousness of which are too little appreciated. 

We realize quite well that the school cannot be held 
responsible for all truancy that exists, that lack of home 
cooperation, bad companionship, and other forces may 
be causative factors. And yet, it would seem that if the 
school endeavored properly to meet its problems, it ought 
to be more of a restraining force and a more efficient 
competitor for the child's interest. It would be just as 
foolhardy to close our eyes to the fact that the school in 
and of itself must, in many cases, be the prime cause for 
truancy, as to adopt the opposite view, namely, that 
other forces are to blame altogether. Surely at least it 



THE PROBLEM 7 

behooves the school as a social agency to recognize this 
as one of the problems it must solve; to endeavor to 
make such a study as shall reveal the various factors in- 
volved ; and, on the basis of these findings, intelligently 
to remedy blamable conditions. 

Ordinary school methods, so lacking in individual ad- 
justment, may explain too, in part, the vast retardation 
which exists. Again and again in our experience we have 
found children normal in the main, but who, nevertheless, 
are retarded two, three, or even more years in school. 
So many instances are found where other factors, physical 
ailments, social conditions, truancy, can be largely ruled 
out, that it seems only logical to account for retardation, 
in part, by present defects in schools. The regular cur- 
ricula and methods are not achieving success in the case 
of children who have peculiarities which require special 
consideration. 

Everywhere, in connection with this problem, common 
sense suggests the great waste that lack of appreciation 
of individual needs entails. There is the economic loss 
arising from school expenditures for efforts which accom- 
plish little, but this is of slight consequence as compared 
with the waste of good human material, the making of 
truants and supposed dullards of those who might be 
developing useful talents. 

Almost all that has been said in regard to the school 
situation is equally applicable to vocational life. The 
vocational misfit not only contributes poor work to so- 
ciety, but because of his inability to hold a job and his 
frequent changing from one place to another, he, too, 
often drifts into delinquency. There is, thus, loss to the 
public, to the employer, and to the employe. Vocational 
dissatisfactions are as frequent and quite as serious as 
educational maladjustments. 

The problems we are here concerned with are, then, 



8 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

those that arise because of lack of recognition of special 
abilities and special disabilities — problems even out- 
lined, so far as we know, only by HealyJ There is, on 
the one hand, the individual who is normal except for 
special mental defects, and, on the other, the individual 
who, though in general mentally below normal, has some 
special ability, which, if developed, might be highly signifi- 
cant for his future welfare. (It can at once be seen that 
we are not dealing with the normal individual endowed 
with unusual ability, the genius or supernormal ; this is not 
our problem, though the method used in the study of our 
problem-cases and later explained in detail is equally 
applicable for the study of the supernormal.) 

Just what do we mean by the term "the individual 
with special mental defect"? We mean a person with 
some mental defect who could not rightfully be designated 
feeble-minded, or even subnormal; one who proves by 
tests and social reactions that, in the main, he is normal. 
So-called general intelligence tests — Binet or other 
"measuring scales of intelligence" — show, in these 
cases, that the individual is not generally incapable, al- 
though results on certain tests and certain aspects of 
behavior are not in accord with the general findings. 
The extent of the incapacity may be more or less narrow. 
Thus, it is conceivable that a person is defective in all 
memory processes, or that he is normal, let us say, in 
his visual memory, but decidedly poor in auditory 
memory, or even that his disability lies in some very 
narrow sphere of memory, perhaps for numbers only. 
Obviously it is unfair and of no practical value to call such 
a person feeble-minded or a "mental defective." 

The individual mentally below normal in general, but 
with special abilities, presents the reverse of this picture. 
Of course, this group might include all grades of mental 

1 Healy, William, "The Individual Delinquent ", 1915. 



THE PROBLEM 9 

defect where contrasted special ability exists. However, 
we are not now interested in discussing the so-called " idiot- 
savants", those rare individuals who, in spite of extreme 
amentia, show remarkable skill in some one direction. 
Their general intelligence is so limited that they are 
unable to adapt themselves to living conditions outside 
of institutions. Nor are we concerned with the feeble- 
minded of any grade possessing special abilities which 
cannot enable them to meet successfully ordinary social 
demands. But there are those who fall somewhat below 
the upper limits of feeble-mindedness (the Binet tests 
for the twelve-year level) according to the definition of 
the American Association for the Study of the Feeble- 
minded, and who yet possess abilities which, not dis- 
covered by these tests, render them able to compete in 
an ordinary environment. Then, there remains a group, 
by Healy called the subnormal, of those who, while defi- 
nitely lacking in the higher mental powers as estimated 
by tests, yet pass the Binet twelve-year level and possess 
special abilities of social significance. It is these two 
latter classes that we have in mind in our discussion of 
defective individuals with special abilities. 1 

No doubt, many a person somewhat defective mentally 
is performing satisfactorily some type of lowly work, and 

1 It is interesting in this connection to note that neither of these last 
two groups conforms to the now widely accepted definition of feeble- 
mindedness formulated in accordance with social implications. The 
British Royal Commission for the Study of the Feeble-minded in 1908 
defined the feeble-minded person as one who, suffering from incomplete 
cerebral development, is unable to perform his duties as a member of 
society in the position to which he was born. The remarkable new 
Illinois statute, framed in 1915, giving legal power of commitment of 
the feeble-minded, states that the criterion of feeble-mindedness in an 
individual is mental defect of a degree rendering him incapable of man- 
aging himself and his affairs. This would indicate that in spite of 
possible failure on psychological tests, the person who, for one reason or 
another, is able to care for himself and to succeed among his fellow men 
from an economic and moral standpoint, cannot properly be designated 
as feeble-minded. 



10 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

many more could be educated to be economically independ- 
ent and useful if special abilities were sought and trained. 
It is here the world at large is in great need of further study 
of defective individuals not segregated in institutions. In 
spite of much discussion and the formulation of many 
generalizations in regard to the feeble-minded, certain 
aspects of the question are rarely taken into account. At 
present, one great need is follow-up work in connection 
with this type, in order that we may know how many 
succeed in the world and why they are successful. Studies 
such as that made by Weidensall, who found in a group 
of successful maids a number feeble-minded as gauged 
by the Binet scale, need to be multiplied. Comparative 
studies of groups of individuals engaged in various types 
of occupations are now being undertaken and will, no 
doubt, be of great value in aiding us to reach safer con- 
clusions regarding the relationship of mental defect and 
industrial capacity. 

Although the problem of the out-and-out defective, 
the feeble-minded, has been very widely discussed, that 
of the individual with special defect and the subnormal 
with special ability is largely neglected. But from the 
standpoint of social economy, of possible constructive 
measures, the problem of special abilities and disabilities 
is exceedingly important. We do not wish to minimize 
the social significance of the feeble-minded, involving the 
protection of the individual and of society. But in the 
case of individuals with special defect or special aptitude, 
it is a question of positive rather than of negative values, 
the contributing to society of something worth while. 
Their problem is not that of segregation; it is, rather, 
adjustment to the social organism. 

To effect the best possible adjustment of any individual 
to the group, many concrete issues must be taken into 
account. In the cases where unusual conditions obtain, 



THE PROBLEM 11 

such as those found in the types with which we are here 
concerned, questions of etiology and certain medical 
problems as well as some social conditions are to be ever 
thought of in efforts at practical solutions. However, 
in the following chapters, the discussion of individual 
adjustments will be limited to educational and vocational 
considerations, omitting all else. 



CHAPTER II 

Methods of Diagnosis 

Certain theoretical aspects of the problems concerning 
special abilities and special disabilities are of considerable 
interest. They deal with the question of the relations 
found between different mental traits in the same indi- 
vidual, including the degree of correlation between one 
mental function and another, and the proof of the presence 
or absence of mental compensations. Some psychologists 
believe that defects in certain fields are compensated by 
unusual excellence in other fields, a theory that has been 
held on the basis of extreme cases, as for example, the 
blind, who after losing sight show great skill in other 
sensory fields. The opponents of this point of view have, 
of course, interpreted such instances as evidence only 
of the effect of intensive training made necessary through 
lack of some sensory functions. 

Another point of interest is the theoretical problem 
whether "all branches of intellectual activity have in 
common one fundamental function (or group of func- 
tions) " — a view held by Spearman and his followers. 
The opposite doctrine, namely, that given elements in 
different mental functions may be only loosely correlated, 
has been enunciated by Thorndike, who believes that 
"measurements reveal a high degree of independence of 
different mental functions even where to the abstract 
psychological theorist they have seemed nearly identical/' 

12 



METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS 13 

According to the latter view, one might expect to find 
special defect or unusual ability in any one of the mental 
processes. These processes, according to all psycholo- 
gists, include sensation, perception, apperception, imagina- 
tion, memory, association, judgment, and reasoning, as 
well as the emotions and will, the latter involving inhibi- 
tion and initiative. To this list must be added the pro- 
cesses concerned with motor reactions. 

Or we can think of our problem in terms of reactions 
which in themselves involve various combinations of the 
above mental processes. From this viewpoint we can 
study ability in the realms of number work, language, 
reading, spelling, handwork, and the other school sub- 
jects. Then, too, there is the whole question of complex 
functions, such as foresight and general powers of self- 
control. We might, also, consider the problem of the 
speed of mental processes and reactions rather than the 
character of the product. 

In other words, if the mind represents a multitude of 
functions, we might expect to find defect or exceptional 
ability existing in any one function or in activities in- 
volving various combinations of functions. To study an 
individual thoroughly would involve knowing not only 
all his particular acquirements, but all the possibilities 
and potentialities that exist in highly specialized fields. 
Of course, this is an ideal that we can scarcely hope to 
attain; nor is it necessary, perhaps, for practical pur- 
poses. Interesting as all theoretical questions are, we 
wish, in reality, to know the defects that are stumbling 
blocks in the individual's career, and to discover 
abilities that may be practically utilized. This would 
be the great step forward. 

To meet these issues intelligently there must be inten- 
sive study of each problem individual. For school pur- 
poses as well as for social and vocational adjustments it 



14 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

would hardly suffice to base educational methods upon 
the teacher's judgment or upon class standing, for the 
former, we know, is often somewhat inaccurate, and the 
latter tells merely the subjects in which the pupil fails or 
excels, nothing as to the cause of the failure or as to the 
possible existence of unused talents. This is no reflec- 
tion upon the teacher, for it would be impossible to deter- 
mine these significant points without analyzing school 
activities and studying the mental processes which under- 
lie them. 

What means can be employed in the study of the mental 
processes involved in various activities which will reveal 
facts significant for the explanation of individual differ- 
ences in abilities? Psychological tests are now quite 
widely used for the study of mentality, the commonest 
procedure being the study of the individual by means of 
some "measuring scale." The best known of these is 
the Binet-Simon scale for measuring intelligence, or some 
adaptation or revision of this, such as Goddard's, Terman 
and Childs' ; and Kuhlmann's. The purpose of these 
scales is the exploration of the individual's general intelli- 
gence, the estimation of ability in terms of age-levels 
whereby the individual can be diagnosed as normal in 
ability or retarded. In case the latter is true, the 
amount of retardation determines whether or not the 
individual is feeble-minded. 

I shall not here enter into any criticism regarding these 
tests, for their inadequacies have already been so widely 
discussed. A "measuring scale" of intelligence gives a 
convenient starting point for the study of individuals 
and has certain other values. It is in such general use 
that it offers a convenient method for the comparison of 
the same individual by different persons; the age-level 
principle on which tests are based is an excellent one in 
some ways; the form in which results are stated is con- 



METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS 15 

venient if not altogether accurate. However, from the 
present point of view, it is sufficient to state that the 
mental functions tested thereby are, in general, quite 
similar, and for this very reason none of the scales now 
available is suited to our purpose. None includes tests 
for a wide range of different functions; indeed, many 
mental functions are not tested at all, and thus we are 
given very few clues to particular abilities or disabilities. 
While it is of great value to gauge a person's general 
intelligence — if there is such a thing — and to place 
him on a scale as compared to other individuals, yet this 
throws but little light upon the problems we are here 
discussing. Whatever the value of any such given 
system, it would seem that it must be supplemented by a 
wide range of other tests if one would make careful studies 
upon which to base prognoses and recommendations for 
practical guidance. ! 

There are now many other tests available for the study 
of various mental processes, many more than can be here 
discussed ; the number is almost legion, and new ones are 
being devised rapidly. With the means now at hand a 
fairly wide range of capacities can be studied. I shall 
simply mention some which we know by experience are 
valuable for practical purposes and which have been used 
in the study of problem cases later presented. 

For determining an individual's success in solving prob- 
lems involving concrete material many tests are now in 
use. The simplest of these are the so-called Form Boards, 
where the subject has only to distinguish between one 
form and another ; there are the Dearborn and the Healy- 
Fernald construction tests; the so-called Puzzle Boxes; 
some of the Knox tests ; the Stenquist test for mechanical 
ability, and many others, for which norms are being 
established and which either are or soon will be ready for 
general use. 



16 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Such performance tests with concrete material afford a 
means of evaluating the individual's ability in perception 
of form and form relationships. Further, they enable 
one to gauge the subject's method of attacking a problem ; 
for instance, the test may be solved by random trial and 
error method, or by procedure which the individual plans. 
One of the most illuminating features is noting whether 
the subject profits by experience, whether he avoids or 
repeats impossibilities and unsuccessful efforts. The im- 
provement made on later retrials gives an indication of 
learning ability in relation to a particular kind of situation. 
Any differences which may be found in readiness of learn- 
ing, where the problems are presented thus concretely as 
opposed to problems presented in abstract form, become 
very significant from the standpoint of educational 
method. Our present-day practice still emphasizes very 
largely the acquiring of knowledge through abstract 
means, and rarely is this preceded by actual experience 
from which concepts and abstractions are in reality 
derived. 

Aside from such study of the perceptual processes as 
are required in dealing with the above-mentioned problems, 
many other means are available for testing perception. 
Thus, we can gauge perception of color as well as of 
form, and ability to perceive differences between various 
forms; that is, to discriminate one form from another. 
For the latter purpose, the well-known cancellation tests 
may be used and others based upon the same principle. 
Perceptions in the abstract field involve mental traits 
which will be discussed under the reasoning process. In 
practical problems it is frequently necessary to study the 
individual's powers of perception with different kinds of 
material, as, for instance, with auditory or visual stimuli. 
For testing the former there have been devised elaborate 
instruments which are used in many laboratories. But 



METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS 17 

quite as valuable "for ordinary purposes are the rather 
rough, but sufficiently diagnostic ordinary speech tests, 
such as the repeating of phrases or stanzas which require 
good discrimination of sound. 

Other tests are especially adapted to study the powers 
of apperception. The ability to size up a situation and to 
grasp the general meaning of it is exceedingly important 
in all activities of life, beginning earlier than the school 
age and extending long past it. Here is involved the 
relation of one part to another; perception in the light 
of something which has gone before. Such tests are 
possible for the apperception of ideas expressed in pictorial 
form, as in the Healy Pictorial Completion test, and of 
ideas expressed in words, as in the Ebbinghaus Mutilated 
Text. The work of Trabue in arranging a scale for the 
determination of apperception of ideas as expressed 
through the medium of written language will no doubt 
have a great value in such places as it is applicable. 

The importance of memory in all the activities of life 
is so obvious that we need not dwell upon it. It is less 
commonly recognized, however, that memory itself is 
not a functional unit ; it would be more accurate to speak 
of "memories", since the ability to remember in one field 
and by one avenue of approach is not always closely corre- 
lated with memory power in other fields. On the basis 
of actual study of individuals, it is frequently found that 
good memory for rote material does not necessarily mean 
equally good memory for logical material. Even in rote 
memory there are often specializations, for the span for 
auditory presentations may be quite different from that 
for visual presentations. No doubt it is true that there 
are differences in other specialized forms of memory, such 
as the motor and kinesthetic, but for the practical pur- 
poses of educational training the above mentioned prob- 
ably constitute the main fields for experimentation. We 



18 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

must distinguish, too, between tests for immediate and 
remote memory, the former, of course, implying a re- 
production that immediately follows the stimulus, what- 
ever that may be, and the latter a reproduction that follows 
after intervals that vary according to the wish of the 
experimenter. 

Tests for memory span may consist of numerals or 
nonsense syllables presented either by auditory or visual 
means. Sometimes lists of related or unrelated words 
are used, whereas, for testing logical memory, a passage in 
which the ideas are logically related is used. Experiments 
in the field of memory have shown that there is, in general, 
a high correlation for various phases of the memory pro- 
cess, but it is unfortunately true that exceptions to this 
in individual cases are frequently found. It is just such 
exceptional cases that are often school and vocational 
problems. 

Other tests are especially adapted to study processes 
of association, either the control of old associations or 
the ability to form new ones. For the former there is the 
free association test, in which one association calls up 
another without any controlled relationship, or the well 
known Kent-Rosanoff test in which the subject reacts 
by giving the first word which the stimulus- word suggests. 
In the Woodworth- Wells association tests a stimulus is 
given, to which the subject reacts according to some 
principle which has been told him; he gives either the 
opposite of a word or a superordinate, or a word which 
stands in some other particular relationship to the stimu- 
lus word. These tests have been very widely used in the 
study of various psychoses, but are important in all 
studies of mentality, for they give a clue to the speed as 
well as to the accuracy of the association processes. 

As for reasoning ability, here again we must remember 
we are not dealing with a unitary process. Reasoning 



METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS 19 

is a complex activity in which a number of mental pro- 
cesses are involved ; thus, the ability to form mental rep- 
resentations, to analyze, to compare, to form judgments, 
all are elements. Likewise one may be able to reason 
very well in certain realms and fail altogether in others. 
This is true, aside from the question of having acquired 
such knowledge or data as are necessary in order to reason 
at all. There are certain tests for the purpose of studying 
the separate elements which enter into the reasoning pro- 
cesses and still others intended to test reasoning as a whole 
in its relation to diverse situations. Some of the Binet 
tests deal with reasoning ; Bonser * has offered a number 
of tests, all of which deal with reasoning, though the 
material itself is quite varied. Terman's tests for ingenu- 
ity, incorporated in his intelligence scale, require reasoning. 

Turning for a moment to tests for the different psy- 
chological processes which are factors in reasoning, we 
find that for study of powers of mental representation 
there are the well known Cross Line and Code tests, which 
involve analysis and to some extent other functions as 
well, since visual or motor imagery may play quite a role. 
Ability to determine mentally similarities and differences 
is required in some of the Binet tests, where remembered 
objects are to be compared, and in tests included in the 
Terman revision. Tests for judgment vary greatly, 
since the situations requiring this mental process are of 
all kinds and descriptions. Thus, included in the Binet 
series are some very simple tests requiring judgment in 
the sensory fields. We must remember, of course, that 
incidental to many tests one can determine the subject's 
ability to judge. 

For studying the powers of psychomotor control there 
are the tests requiring apparatus, such as the "3-hole 

1 Bonser, F. G., "Keasoning Ability of Children", "Teachers Col- 
lege Contributions to Education ", 37, 1910. 



20 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

test", where the task is to hold a stylus without touching 
the sides of the hole in which it is inserted ; or, there are 
simpler tests, such as drawing a line between two given 
lines without touching the edges, or placing a clot in 
half-inch squares as rapidly as possible without touch- 
ing the lines or missing the squares. These tests for 
psycho-motor control, or motor coordination, may be 
supplemented by other tests commonly used by neurol- 
ogists. 

Mental control may be evaluated by results achieved 
on quite a varied group of tests, including the association 
tests, already mentioned, and the Kraepelin Continuous 
Addition and Subtraction tests, where a certain number 
must be added or subtracted continuously from some 
given starting point. Here, both speed and accuracy 
are significant. Some of the Rossolimo tests, such as 
naming the months backward, or obeying several com- 
mands simultaneously, are designed for this same 
purpose. 

We can only mention briefly a few other tests which 
are practically useful in diagnosing abilities. Among 
these, one interesting and important group of tests is 
designed to determine the subject's ability to follow direc- 
tions. Obeying commands, as in the seven-year Binet 
test, offers the simplest form, while the Instruction Box 
and the Knox Cube test present problems concerned with 
tasks involving concrete material, and the Woodworth- 
Wells Direction tests, for the same purpose, present the 
directions in printed form. Important also is another 
group of tests devised to show the individual's ability to 
formulate generalizations on the basis of repeated experi- 
ence, as in the so-called Multiple Choice Test, one im- 
portant and practically useful form of which has recently 
been devised by Yerkes. 

Incidental to all testing, there is opportunity for ob- 



METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS 21 

serving' power of attention and distractability, qualities 
which can be gauged also by specific tests for this purpose. 
Characteristic traits such as persistence and determina- 
tion, as opposed to easy discouragement, likewise may 
be noted. 

Concerning the emotions, the affective side of life, few 
tests are as yet in use, though most students of behavior 
appreciate the need for them. Indeed, it is quite doubtful 
if tests will ever offer an effective means of studying these 
complex aspects of mentality. The situations which in 
real life call the emotions into play are not easily duplicated 
in the laboratory, and artificial stimuli for arousing them 
necessarily would result in totally different reactions. 
How can one study experimentally love and hate as they 
affect behavior? Or what can tests reveal concerning 
the formation and results of anti-social grudges? Judg- 
ment as to defects in emotional life, as well as in regard to 
will, must be based very largely if not altogether upon the 
individual's social reactions. Recognition of individual 
differences in strength of the emotions, in powers of inhibi- 
tion and self-control, will probably always rest mainly 
upon evidence gleaned from general behavior and inci- 
dental reactions rather than upon results obtained by use 
of one psychological test or series of tests. 

As for the school subjects, we can, of course, determine 
more or less accurately the results that have accrued from 
the years spent in the schoolroom. Where failure to 
profit by educational opportunities is due to real defect, 
it becomes essential to study the processes involved. Al- 
though the psychology of the school subjects is as yet 
largely unknown, and, as we have already stated, this 
limits the possibility of reaching a satisfactory explana- 
tion of all instances of school failures, yet one must go as 
far as is possible in an effort to find the causes upon which 
alone remedial measures can be undertaken. We shall 



22 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

discuss these questions more fully as problems of various 
kinds are presented. 1 

Of course, intensive study by means of a wide range of 
tests requires a great amount of time. The more thorough 
the study and the more one endeavors to make a complete 
survey of the individual's capacities in various directions, 
the more time is needed. But the value of the findings 
and the accuracy of the results are in direct proportion to 
the time expended. Then, too, the clinical psychologist 
must be familiar with a wide range of tests, and in certain 
instances must have sufficient ingenuity to adapt means 
to the problem in hand. 

Furthermore, he must have the ability to analyze the 
results, since often it is not sufficient merely to compare 
findings with established norms ; it is even more necessary 
to interpret divergences. The ideal diagnostician would, 
no doubt, be difficult to find, since medical and neurologi- 
cal training, general psychological knowledge, and experi- 
ence in clinical psychology ought to be supplemented by 
experience in the educational field. We can only hope 
to approximate this ideal. We can, at least, demand a 
person who has had fairly wide training and experience, 
who realizes the various aspects which may be condition- 
ing factors, and who supplements his own knowledge by 
consulting others who can add the facts needed to make 
well-rounded studies possible. 

1 Such a book as Freeman's "Experimental Education" (1916) gives 
only a partial analysis of the school subjects, and while suggestive and 
helpful, it does not offer much practical help in the solution of problem 
cases. 



CHAPTER III 

Differential Diagnosis 

In the preceding chapter we have discussed the possi- 
bility of studying in detail the various mental processes 
in their relationship to the capabilities of the individual. 
However, before there can be a final diagnosis upon which 
to base practical procedure, certain interpretative con- 
siderations must be weighed. The psychological examina- 
tion is not sufficient in and of itself to enable one to reach 
a diagnosis ; rather, here, as in medicine, we need differ- 
ential diagnosis. This means a much broader acquaint- 
ance with the problems of psychopathology than mere 
familiarity with tests indicates. Abnormal reactions to 
tests are outward signs that require interpretation, since 
they may be due to any one of a number of causes. Hence, 
the various possibilities must be known and considered 
before concluding that we have a case of either general 
mental defect or special mental disability. 

Here should be emphasized the fact that data must be 
gathered from various sources in order to make an in- 
telligent study of an individual. Even for educational 
diagnosis much more is needed than the findings obtained 
from psychological tests. Adequate case-studies here, 
as in other problems, require a knowledge of the condi- 
tions in the background, including data concerning 
heredity, family history, developmental history and en- 
vironmental conditions. One can intelligently under- 
stand an individual only in the light of all these facts. 

23 



24 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Differential diagnosis of special ability hardly needs 
discussion since any unusual capacity in a special field 
is a positive fact needing no further interpretation. In 
both normal individuals and defectives it is necessary 
to test the different mental functions in order that where 
special abilities exist they may be brought to light. The 
only generalization that needs emphasis is that in order 
to discover special gifts there must be a search for them. 
That is, a wide enough range of tests must be used to 
give each individual a chance to display his capacities. 
Once discovered, there should follow a proper evaluation 
of abilities, as is not commonly done, for it is the part 
of common sense to utilize for the benefit of the individ- 
ual and society such gifts as exist. 

Differential diagnosis of special defects is a much more 
complex problem, since, in general, negative results may 
be due to exceedingly varied causes. Irregularity in 
test results, which, on superficial view, might seem in- 
dicative of special defect, may, for example, be due in- 
stead to poor physical conditions. This necessitates a 
physical examination in the case of every individual who 
is studied. Physical disability preventing the best 
achievement of which one is capable may be reflected 
in work in the laboratory where mental examinations 
are made, in the schoolroom, or in the shop. 

Interest and zest for mental pursuits is sometimes 
maintained in spite of poor physical background, we 
know ; such studies as those of Gulick and Ayres * have 
shown this. Nevertheless, it is not true in all cases. 
We ourselves know instances where, with improved 
health, the reports on conduct and school standing, and 
also the industrial record, were greatly changed. We 
know, too, cases where findings on tests were altogether 

1 Gulick and Ayres, "Medical Inspection of Schools", Chapter XII, 
1908. 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 25 

different after the child had been built up physically. 
Anemia, malnutrition, or debility following illness, is 
sometimes the explanation of mental dullness which 
might be confused with innate defect. In all such cases 
it seems only fair to give the individual the benefit of 
the doubt. He needs, in any case, all the physical help 
which can be given him, and unless the mental disability 
is so extreme as to preclude any possibility of poor physical 
conditions as an explanation, the final diagnosis should 
be held in abeyance. To be remembered always, par- 
ticularly with young children, are the recently studied 
disturbances of function of the glands of internal secre- 
tion. Both we and many others have seen results noth- 
ing short of marvelous through treatment of these troubles 
in children who appeared exceedingly dull in some aspect 
of their mental life. This makes us all the more conscious 
of the contributions that future research may bring forth 
concerning relationships between physical and mental 
conditions. 

Case 1. By way of illustration of the effect of physical 
conditions on mental life, we cite the case of Edith N., 
who represents findings that are not at all uncommon in 
our experience. 1 When twelve years old she was brought 
to the clinic by her mother. At that time she was in 
the fourth grade of the public school. We found her to 
be in very poor condition physically, suffering from 
anemia, defective vision, enlarged glands; there was a 
history of former otorrhea ; the girl was dull and listless, 

1 The case-studies which are cited throughout are selected solely 
to illustrate the various types of abilities and disabilities, irrespective 
of age, sex, or nationality. That they include many more instances 
of males than females is probably due to the fact that in our clinic where 
court cases are largely studied, the number of males exceeds by far the 
number of females. Should any actual sex differences exist, they could 
only be determined on the basis of large numbers of unselected cases, 
a requirement which even our extensive material does not meet. 

The detailed results of psychological examinations for each case will 
be found in the appendix. 



26 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

and the results on psychological tests were very poor. 
According to Binet scale she ranged as 9f years mentally. 
She failed on our simpler Construction Test and did very 
little in the way of school work, failing to spell correctly 
anything but the easiest words, or to solve any number 
work but the very simplest. The case was referred to 
a clinic for physical treatment and later to a convalescent 
home. 

Thirteen months after this we had occasion to study 
this case once more. We found then that our advice 
had been acted upon, with the result that the girl had 
improved immensely. She had gained about twenty-six 
pounds in weight, had grown an inch; her vision was 
corrected by glasses, her throat was in good condition, 
tonsils and adenoids had been removed. Altogether she 
showed a wonderful improvement. The interesting 
feature from the point of view of our present discussion 
was the tremendous gain which we found on the mental 
side. She now passed up through the twelve-year Binet 
tests; solved correctly the Construction Test, which 
was previously a failure, as well as a more difficult one, 
which had not been tried before. A number of other 
tests corroborated these findings. We noted that she 
still was very poor in school work, but it must be remem- 
bered that during the intervening period she had prac- 
tically no opportunity of attending school. Further- 
more, she showed little interest in school; perhaps her 
discouragement was a natural state of affairs, since she 
was in a very low grade for a girl of her age. But it 
would be the height of folly to state that her school 
retardation was an evidence of innate mental defect, 
just as earlier it would have been altogether unfair not 
to have taken into account the effect of the poor physical 
conditions upon test results. 

We may note that there are three general aspects to 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 27 

the problem of the relation of physical disability to 
mental performance. First, poor physical conditions 
may not affect the quality of mental activities at all; 
second, psychological examination in the laboratory may 
not reveal the influence of poor physical status on mental 
achievement, particularly if the examination is brief 
and hence requires little prolonged attention and effort. 
But inability to cope with the requirements of school 
life may nevertheless be the direct result of the lack of 
physical vigor and health. Third, poor physical condi- 
tions may directly affect performance on tests as well 
as other mental effort. 

It can readily be understood that in reaching a diagnosis 
of mental capacities one must be careful not to confuse 
innate disability with special defect due to a defective 
sensory organ. I need but mention troubles with vision 
and hearing. It requires hardly a moment's reflection 
to be convinced of the vast amount of routine school 
work that is profitless to a child who either cannot see 
or hear normally. It is quite generally recognized that 
sensory defects frequently act as irritants, influencing a 
wider range of activity than those correlated with the 
actual sense organ itself. Eye strain coupled with visual 
defect leads to nervousness and irritability; the conse- 
quences of several types of ear troubles, such as variability 
of hearing that accompanies otorrhea, are equally im- 
portant. Many a child is accounted stupid who is really 
dull from remediable sensory defects. Much as these 
subjects have been discussed, we find many instances 
where there has been utter neglect of such troubles. In 
spite of our present method of medical inspection in 
schools, there are, we know from experience, many cases 
of children who have unrecognized physical ailments 
which affect their school work to an extent that is alto- 
gether unappreciated. 



28 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Case 2. Recently a nine-year old boy was brought to 
us because, on the basis of supposed defect for school 
work, he was believed to be a suitable subject for the 
state institution for the feeble-minded. He had attended 
school for three years and was still in the first grade. 
He was indeed dull looking, and had one dared form an 
impression from his appearance and listless manner, 
one might have concluded that the boy was mentally 
defective. Physical examination showed him to be 
virtually blind in one eye with vision about two thirds 
of normal in the other. He was a sufferer from chronic 
otorrhea, and when examined in the clinic he was found 
to be partially deaf. Inquiry regarding the school career 
elicited the fact that the boy had never been examined 
by the school physician, that no recognition had ever 
been made of the fact that he was suffering from sensory 
defects which required immediate attention. Psycho- 
logical examination proved that the boy tested almost 
normal for his age. 

Case 3. For similar reasons we studied a boy where 
the neglect of visual defect was equally egregious. He, 
too, was considered by his teachers as unable to learn 
school subjects, but a careful mental examination by us 
showed the boy was rather in advance of his chrono- 
logical age, and was suffering from excessive visual defect. 
Sent to a correctional institution, he had broken his 
glasses shortly after commitment, and during the nine 
months which intervened between that time and our 
examination, his eyes had never been retested nor had 
glasses been obtained for him, and yet, in this case, the 
main reason for commitment was to give the lad edu- 
cational opportunities. 

So obvious is the distinction between special defect in 
the language field and poor results on tests due to speech 
defect, that we need but mention it. It is quite gener- 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 29 

ally recognized that stuttering or stammering may re- 
tard normal progress as well as become a great factor in 
conduct problems. Of course, such defects can scarcely 
be overlooked in mental examination, and the only caution 
to be observed is a proper interpretation of the extent 
of the influence on both test results and school standing. 
Any diagnosis of mentality based solely on Binet or any 
"measuring scale", which consists largely of language 
tests, is altogether to be discountenanced in the study of 
individuals with speech defects. 

Nervous disorders of one kind or another are, as one 
would expect, important influences in mental life, caus- 
ing peculiarities which may lead to test results that can 
readily be confused with special defect, hence differential 
diagnosis here becomes of exceeding importance. This is 
notably true in cases of hysteria because of the reactions 
which characterize this nervous disease. Janet 1 and 
other authorities agree that in practically all cases of 
hysteria there is great variability in the functioning of 
the mental processes, that want of mental unity and 
deficiency of inhibition are essential features of the dis- 
order. There is often extreme dissociation in the mental 
life and lack of control of both the emotions and of volun- 
tary actions. The contradictory behavior to which this 
leads is a notable accompaniment of the disease. Fre- 
quently, too, there is simulation, so that the reactions of 
such persons are altogether unreliable. 

These characteristic symptoms are such that when 
diagnosis of hysteria has been made, it becomes extremely 
dangerous to designate the individual as feeble-minded on 
the basis of tests. There are, indeed, two aspects that 
must be remembered in this problem. On the one hand, 
it is not contended by any authority that the diagnosis 
of hysteria can be made on the basis of mental tests alone, 
1 Janet, Pierre, " The Major Symptoms of Hysteria '*, 1907. 



30 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

but, on the other hand, the best authorities would be 
equally as unwilling to state that mental tests are not 
directly affected by hysteria. Remembering the mental 
states of hystericals as described by Janet and others, 
it is to be expected that this disease will influence greatly 
the results of the psychological examination. The poor 
powers of control, together with definite inhibitions which 
sometimes occur, the dissociations and simulations, fre- 
quently, if not always, play a great role in the mental 
findings. 

We ourselves have noted again and again the extraor- 
dinary variability in the mental processes that ac- 
companies hysteria. Sometimes because of very definite 
attitude or simulation of one kind or another, the peculiar- 
ity may be evidenced on tests of one kind alone, in which 
case the differential diagnosis between this and specialized 
defect becomes very important. 

Case 4. We might quote from our own experience 
the instance of a girl whom we studied at various times 
over an interval of two and a half years. She had been 
tested in several other laboratories, in one of which she 
was diagnosed as feeble-minded, a diagnosis made, no 
doubt, without any recognition of the fact that she was 
unmistakably a case of hysteria, and that therefore actual 
test results required interpretation in the light of this 
fact. Knowing the dangers inherent in such a situation, 
we were for long unwilling to make a definite statement 
regarding the girl's innate mental ability. Her reactions 
when first tested were significant because of their great 
irregularity. When seen some time later, we felt the 
psychological findings were still unreliable, owing to a 
distinctly bad attitude which the girl still assumed. 
Eventually, however, we had an opportunity of stimulat- 
ing her powers of self-control, due to the fact that she her- 
self knew her immediate future depended very largely 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 31 

on the outcome of the psychological examination, since 
the question was to be settled regarding her return to a 
correctional institution, her transfer to a school for the 
feeble-minded, or her living in a private home. Under 
these conditions we found that the girl was innately 
quite capable; that she could cope successfully with a 
number of difficult tests. Only where particularly good 
mental control was required were the results below normal. 
In their entirety, the test results were remarkably better 
than those found earlier by any one. 

The irregular mental functioning of chorea must be 
interpreted in the light of the nervous disturbance. 
The findings on tests are often curiously bizarre and may 
lead to fallacious conclusions concerning special defect if 
the fact of the disease is not taken into account. Clinical 
psychologists should remember that in rare cases the only 
signs of chorea may be the mental disturbance and that 
some authorities contend that in every case mental func- 
tioning is at some time affected. 

In differential diagnosis of special defect we must 
likewise consider the question of epilepsy, including the 
major and minor forms of the disease. All epileptologists 
unite in stating that mental peculiarities are found in as 
great or even greater measure in individuals subject to 
minor attacks as when convulsions occur. One of the 
notable peculiarities displayed by epileptics is the vari- 
ability of their mental processes from day to day and 
in one field as compared to another. Very frequently 
the results on tests performed at one sitting are exceed- 
ingly irregular, and they may be found to vary consider- 
ably on retesting on another day. This is true apart 
from the fact that the mind is affected by actual epileptic 
attacks; not only is there variance in mental processes 
either immediately before or after a seizure, but in many 
instances the general variability of the epileptic's mental 



32 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

powers is equally characteristic at all times. When the 
careful investigation of developmental history that should 
always be made in cases of apparent special mental defect 
indicates the presence of epilepsy, test results must be 
interpreted in the light of this fact. It would be a 
very questionable procedure to reach a final diagnosis 
of the mentality of the epileptic on the basis of one ex- 
amination, if results apparently showed defective powers. 
Of course, this is not equally true in instances where it is 
readily found that the epileptic individual is bright or 
normal mentally, as may frequently be the case. 

Sometimes mental dullness caused by excessive use 
of tea or coffee, or by smoking indulged in to an extreme 
degree, exhibits itself in a form which makes observers 
suspicious of specialized defect. This is due to the fact 
that such habits may bring about lack of self-control, 
lack of interest, and inability to sustain attention. Hence, 
tasks which require persistent effort or continuity of 
purpose may be badly performed although there is no 
innate defect to account for this. 

Case 5. We here may cite the case of a boy in the 
subnormal room of the public school who was accounted 
exceedingly dull by his teacher because, while he was 
able to do fairly well certain tasks which aroused his 
interest, yet he made little progress in abstract work. 
On psychological examination we found him to be ex- 
ceedingly apathetic and unwilling to exert himself, fre- 
quently preferring to say that he could not do a test 
rather than to try. When stimulated to make an effort, 
he solved correctly problems which he had previously 
given up. We, too, noted the irregular test results, for 
he made quite a good record on performance tests which 
awakened his interest, but failed very frequently on tests 
of the questionnaire type. Naturally, this affected the 
JBinet score markedly. Investigation of the family cir- 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 33 

cumstances revealed the fact that there was extreme 
poverty, that several social agencies were supplying 
help, that the main article of the boy's diet was coffee, 
which he drank to excess. This was quite enough to 
account for both the nervous irritability, leading to bad 
conduct, and the mental apathy, leading to poor school 
work. 

The relationship of alcoholism to mental disturbances 
which might be confused with special defect needs men- 
tion, though it should be added that very rarely does this 
problem present itself practically, because alcoholism in 
individuals young enough to be brought to the clinic is 
very infrequent. Although the number of such cases 
in our own experience has not been large, yet we have 
seen adolescents whose mental processes functioned most 
irregularly because of indulgence in alcohol. After the 
effect of this stimulant had worn off, the test results were 
quite different from what was obtained in earlier testing. 
The kind of irregularity found may vary from one case to 
another, exhibiting itself either in failure on tests which 
require good mental control, or on tests of some type 
which fail to awaken interest. Parenthetically, it may 
be interesting to mention that the selective effect of 
alcoholism is clearly seen in Korsakow's syndrome, 
where, temporarily at least, the individual loses certain 
powers, such as memory for recent events and orientation 
in time relationships. 

In the enumeration of conditions which have caused 
mental irregularities that require differentiation from 
special defect, one of exceeding importance must be in- 
cluded, which, because often learned only through obtain- 
ing the child's confidence, is frequently entirely over- 
looked. I refer to the excessive indulgence in bad sex 
practices so commonly accompanied by extreme mental 
debility and causing results on tests that are often mis- 



34 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

interpreted. It is a very interesting fact that such habits 
do not necessarily lead to general mental dullness so much 
as to lack of energy and mental apathy which shows it- 
self in the inability to concentrate and maintain attention. 
For this reason tests which are rapidly completed are 
performed satisfactorily, in contradistinction to failure 
on work which requires continuity of purpose and steadi- 
ness of attention. Because of this, such cases may readily 
be confused with problems of true special defect. The 
retesting of such individuals is a matter of extreme in- 
terest, for we have noted again and again that with the 
conquering of bad habits there results great improvement 
on mental tasks. 

Practically the only major 'psychosis that requires 
differentiation from special defect among adolescents is 
dementia praecox. Where other insanities occur, where 
there is melancholia or mania, the symptoms are so pro- 
nounced that there can be no doubt of the diagnosis. 
As for dementia prcecox, how can it be distinguished 
from special defect? We know that this mental disease 
is characterized by lack of energy and diminution in the 
power of application; there is usually great torpidity 
and inattention, while the association processes are dis- 
turbed, especially from the standpoint of time reactions. 
But the individual's attitude toward the world in 
general is the main characteristic which leads to sus- 
picion of aberration, and in this respect individuals suffer- 
ing from dementia prsecox are so unlike normal individ- 
uals with special defect that there is little likelihood of 
making an error if one keeps in mind the special traits 
which distinguish this psychosis. In this connection it 
must ever be remembered that mental aberration may 
affect test results to such an extent that it becomes 
impossible to determine how innately capable an in- 
dividual really is. Diagnosis in regard to native capacity 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 

must, therefore, in such cases, be held in abeyance, or 
at least only tentatively stated. 

Where severe head injuries have been received, leading 
to what is generally known as traumatic constitution, 
one may find peculiarities in the functioning of the mental 
processes which are somewhat similar to results due to 
special defect. The instability that arises from such 
injuries, lack of good powers of control and persistence, 
causes certain types of work to be badly performed. 

Case 6. A boy who had suffered a severe head injury 
when nine years old was studied at our clinic, where it 
was found that the lad was extremely bright. He was 
now fifteen years of age, had reached eighth grade and 
was able to do well quite difficult school work. Later 
this boy was examined by a psychologist who diagnosed 
the case as one of feeble-mindedness, a conclusion 
based on Binet findings. In discussing several diffi- 
cult tests which were performed very well, the opinion 
was rendered that these were merely evidences of nar- 
rowly specialized ability. The fact that this boy could 
do difficult problems in arithmetic by ingenious and 
economical methods, though he made a poor record on 
the Courtis tests which require long continued powers 
of attention, was not interpreted in the light of traumatic 
constitution, although this is a point of much importance. 
The difficult tasks which elicited interest and which 
could be rather quickly performed were done very well, 
although much more simple tests of the questionnaire 
type were failures. It was because of the poor record 
on such questionnaire and language tests that the boy 
was considered feeble-minded. The inconsistency be- 
tween the failures on simple work and the successes on 
more difficult tasks should have made the experimenter 
seek explanation other than that of innate general defect. 

Seen still later in our clinic, the test results were very 



36 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

different from the last ones reported to us. Even by 
Binet tests no mental defect was found; the tests for 
upper years were done exceptionally well, as were, in- 
deed, many other fairly difficult mental tasks. The 
explanation of these incontrovertible findings can only 
be the variations in mental functionings which are prone 
to occur, perhaps on the basis of emotional attitude, in 
cases of traumatic constitution. 

We cannot here enter into a thorough discussion of the 
problem of the constitutional inferior. For details we 
refer the reader to the work of others, particularly to the 
informing discussion in Healy's "The Individual Delin- 
quent." Suffice it for our purpose to state that consti- 
tutional inferiors present both physical and mental 
peculiarities, the latter of which cause test results that 
are quite variable and that require differentiation from 
special defect. Diagnosis in such cases can only be 
determined in the light of all the facts revealed by physical 
and psychological examination, as well as by family and 
developmental history and the story of the social career. 

The clinical psychologist who wishes to be thorough 
and to diagnose intelligently must acquaint himself with 
these types. The same may be said in regard to certain 
other problems which can be understood only when 
much information besides that obtained from psychological 
examination is at hand. Thus, there are special defects 
which are due to brain injuries or to disease of certain 
portions of the brain. Aphasia, alexia, agraphia, word- 
deafness, and other such disturbances are, as defined by 
neurologists, always due to brain lesion and not to in- 
nate defect; they involve loss or impairment of power 
that once existed. 

The problems of so-called congenital alexia, congenital 
word-blindness and word-deafness, we shall consider in 
detail in a later chapter. Suffice it to say here that in 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 37 

any case it requires care to distinguish between word- 
blindness and word-deafness due to cerebral lesions or 
defects, and symptoms similar in character, but due to 
grave difficulties with sight and hearing which at the 
time of examination may or may not have been corrected 
and which earlier were a severe handicap. (For further 
discussion of these points see Chapter VI.) 

Certain considerations of attitude must ever be kept 
in mind in the diagnosis of mentality, because they have 
a very direct bearing upon the problem of differential 
diagnosis of special defect. Whatever affects attitude 
has a very vital relationship to all mental effort; as 
most important should be mentioned simulation and 
emotional disturbances. The attitude with which an 
individual approaches a task is a great factor in the 
results accomplished; fear, embarrassment, general de- 
pression, indeed, any emotion, may lead to most equivocal 
reactions. Attitude may affect tests of one particular 
kind, because of associations which they arouse. In 
some cases it may be that under the stress of emotion 
the individual is unable to adjust himself to novel situa- 
tions, to show any planfulness or initiative, whereas tasks 
that require mere memory or which can be readily per- 
formed on the basis of long established reactions or 
habits, are unaffected by the stress under which the 
individual is laboring. Instances of this kind have been 
reported elsewhere at length. 1 

In all psychological examinations one must rule out 
the factor of simulation before accepting a negative re- 
sult at its face value. Because of some special considera- 
tion, the individual may simulate general disability, or 
he may feign inability to perform some special kind of 
work, in accordance with some plan or purpose of his 

1 Bronner, Augusta F., "Attitude as it Affects Performance of Tests." 
Psychological Review, July, 1916. 



38 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

own. We have known cases in institutions where the 
individual did not wish to be held in the schoolroom, 
preferring, possibly, other activities, and he therefore 
pretended to be unable to do the work demanded by 
the school teacher. On tests one sometimes finds an 
individual who shows very distinct dislike for some type 
of work, and who, because of his simulation of disability, 
might be considered an instance of specialized defect 
were one not careful in the analysis of results. 

In distinguishing between general defect and normality 
accompanied by special defect, there are several points 
to be considered. Before concluding that an individual 
is a defective, that is, feeble-minded, there should be 
several kinds of evidence, each of which corroborates the 
other. Unfortunately, the practice of basing the diagnosis 
of feeble-mindedness merely on the results of Binet or 
other "measuring scales" is all too common. Sometimes 
grave errors are made, particularly when the subject is 
handicapped by either a lack of adequate knowledge of 
English or by a special defect for language. The proper 
emphasis on the social implications of feeble-mindedness is 
a help, but several other considerations should play a part. 

From our long experience we are convinced that for 
the diagnosis of feeble-mindedness there should be given 
not only (a) the Binet tests, but also (6) a number of 
performance tests, to which should be added (c) the indi- 
vidual's reactions to ordinary or common-sense situations, 
and (d) the extent to which he has profited by educa- 
tional opportunities. When these four types of tests 
are used, the final conclusions reached should be fair 
and valid, provided the tests have been made under 
favorable conditions. All of the disturbing factors above 
enumerated, of course, must be absent. If diagnosis is 
based on less evidence than is here set forth, there is 
always a possibility, among other things, that what 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 39 

is designated feeble-mindedness may, in reality, be only 
special defect. 

To distinguish between the normal individual with 
special disability and the defective with special ability 
should not present a very difficult problem in the light 
of all that we have already said. When failure is confined 
to tests which involve some special mental process or 
processes, and all other types of tests are done well, it is 
more than likely that the individual is normal, but with 
some special defect. When, on the other hand, tests 
involving varied mental processes are performed poorly, 
with the exception of a group which depends upon some 
one mental process, it is more likely that the individual 
is a defective with some special ability. This ability 
or disability may involve language, memory, motor re- 
actions, or any other mental activity. When the results 
on various tests do not correlate and a marked discrepancy 
is found, it becomes necessary to evaluate results in the 
light of all the considerations we have discussed. 

It will readily be seen that the problem of mental 
diagnosis is exceedingly complex, not always easy of 
solution. In order that the verdict may be sane and fair 
and present a prognosis and recommendations that are 
practically valuable, there must be intensive study of 
each individual problem case. We may repeat that this 
necessitates psychological examination so complete and 
the use of tests so diversified that some knowledge may 
be obtained of the various aspects of mental life. But 
this psychological examination is not sufficient. There 
must be included, above all, the developmental history, 
which often illuminates the whole problem, the physical 
conditions at the time of examination, the educational 
opportunities which the individual has had, the social 
background, and perhaps the facts of heredity. It is 
the accuracy and the completeness of all these data 
which determine the value of the final diagnosis. 



CHAPTER IV 
Some Present Educational Tendencies 

It is of interest to review briefly the main trends of 
present-day tendencies in education, to discover, if we 
can, to what extent they are concerned with the problems 
of special ability and special defect. There is at present 
a great awakening in the educational world, an apprecia- 
tion of the fact that in the past many principles have 
been accepted as true without an effort being made to 
establish them on scientific bases. Logical deductions 
were earlier the chief justification for procedure ; then 
psychological laws became the criteria, but largely with- 
out any study of their applicability to specific situations, 
or -of their truth and value under definite and varying 
conditions. 

To-day the recognition of the fallacies to which this 
mode of thinking lead is becoming widespread. In 
consequence, questions are arising concerning the aims 
of education and the methods of attaining them. Ex- 
perimentation is being undertaken in the hope of learning 
how desired goals may be best achieved. This spirit of 
inquiry is affecting all aspects of education — curricula, 
methods, schemes of school administration — and is 
leading to studies of applied psychology dealing with the 
separate mental processes, with laws of learning, and 
with means of measuring and evaluating actual school 
results. 

40 



SOME PRESENT EDUCATIONAL TENDENCIES 41 

In general, the main interests so far have centered about 
the formulation and application of general principles. 
It seems fair to state that the product of education has 
been considered more than the process, the group more 
than the individual. School researches, as a whole, have 
dealt very little with attempts at analysis of the under- 
lying and conditioning factors of the learning process. 
They have stressed the measurement of results of educa- 
tional practice, but not the reasons for success or failure. 
They have investigated school systems as a whole, but 
not the individuals who comprise the school systems. 

While nearly all studies in experimental psychology 
prove the fact of individual differences, little effort has 
been made to show the practical correlations in adaptation 
of method and subject matter that must naturally follow 
in order to meet adequately the individual differences 
which exist. But since one salient characteristic of the 
mental life is individual differences, this certainly should 
affect the theory of education on the one hand and prac- 
tical procedure on the other. The lack of experimenta- 
tion in the field of individual needs is noteworthy; it 
is undoubtedly on account of this that the problems of 
individual special defect or of unusual ability have been 
largely disregarded. 

Let us review briefly some specific examples illustrating 
the main trends of educational theory and practice, 
regarding them critically in relation to the problem of the 
individual. 

The aim of education most frequently stressed at the 
present time is perhaps best expressed as the socialization 
of the individual. Though the evolution of this ideal 
cannot here be presented, nor the arguments in its behalf, 
nor the consequences to which it has led, it may be said 
that even so broad and alluring a principle has taken 
little account of the practical means for reaching each 



42 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

individual and socializing him. The fact that in order 
to attain this ideal for each individual the means must 
be varied, has been virtually disregarded. It has been 
implied, if not specifically stated, that the same scheme 
of education, the same studies and the same methods, are 
equally successful for all children. The schools founded 
on this philosophy and purporting to accomplish this end 
presumably hope to achieve it by adopting the same 
procedure for all. So splendid and inspiring a presen- 
tation as that made in Dewey's recent book * gives little 
heed to individual variations in abilities, at least as a 
fundamental aspect of human life that must form one 
of the chief principles in education. Nor do schools that 
stand most strongly for the embodiment of this view of 
education as a socializing process pay much more heed 
to individual adjustments than schools that are sup- 
posedly less progressive and liberal. 

However widely such a general end as the socialization 
of the individual may be applicable, it requires adapta- 
tion of method to individual characteristics for its ac- 
complishment. And herein lies one great weakness, it 
would seem, in present-day tendencies. Method is one 
aspect of education that has been much discussed; vol- 
umes have been written on both general method and 
special methods pertaining to the different school sub- 
jects, but until recently there has been little attempt to 
make method a rational outgrowth of psychological find- 
ings. Freeman's recent book 2 purports to show the 
application of psychological laws to problems of instruc- 
tion, but little or no cognizance is taken of the relation 
to the mental make-up of the individual. 

In some schools of education, studies are now being 

1 Dewey, John, "Democracy and Education", 1916. 

2 Freeman, Frank N., "The Psychology of the Common Branches", 
1916. 



SOME PRESENT EDUCATIONAL TENDENCIES 43 

carried on in an effort to establish the psychology of such 
studies as arithmetic, spelling, and reading, and other of 
the usual schoolroom activities. Here, as in study of the 
more elemental psychological processes, experimentation 
must gather the data and establish the general laws. 

We need to know the psychological laws related to 
learning in the different school subjects, laws which apply 
to the majority and which will be effective with the 
greater portion of the school population. We are just 
beginning to realize the intricacy and complexity of the 
mental processes that are brought into play in ordinary 
school subjects popularly thought to be simple. But it 
should be added that even after such generalizations are 
reached, there will always remain the problem of the 
individual who presents special conditions. Individual 
differences will ever be extreme enough to make many 
exceptions to the general rule. Some children will always 
require special consideration and special adaptation of 
both subject matter and method/ The ideal of teaching 
efficiently individuals with special defect or special ability 
can be realized only after we are able to analyze the 
situations they present and to direct practical efforts 
in accordance with established principles of learning the 
various subjects. Study of individuals and knowledge 
of method should have a reciprocal relationship, the de- 
velopment of each aiding the progress of the other. 

After all, the practicability of an end, in education as 
elsewhere, and the value of the means used to attain the 
end can only be determined by the results achieved. The 
evaluation of accomplishment is a distinct feature of 
present activities in educational circles, much more so 
than at any period in the past. One evidence of this is 
seen in the number of surveys which so many cities have 
undertaken for the purpose of determining the efficiency 
of their school systems. 



44 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Another proof of the tendency to measure educational 
product is evidenced by the rapidity with which objective 
scales for measuring achievement in the various school 
subjects have been evolved. By means of these scales 
it is proposed to estimate progress from time to time 
and to compare results obtained by the use of various 
methods in teaching. In scales, as in school surveys, it 
is product that is being studied and not process. Such 
methods of evaluation are a very practicable help since 
they obviate the use of subjective and hence very un- 
reliable standards. But they throw no light whatsoever 
upon the reasons for success or failure, nor is much clue 
given in explanation of the advantage which one method 
or one system has 6ver another . v Measuring scales make 
it possible to compare an individual's ability with a norm 
for his age, or with the achievement of any other individ- 
ual, and to gauge his own progress from time to time, 
but they do not touch upon the mental processes in- 
volved in any activity. They are concerned with com- 
plex achievements, not with the separate aspects of 
mental life, hence they are of little use in the study of 
problem cases. 

The inadequacy of this type of investigation may be 
illustrated by discussing briefly the problems of retarda- 
tion and elimination, both naturally related to our present 
subject. We may judge of their seriousness and practical 
import by the number of published studies dealing with 
these topics. Retardation has been discussed from the 
standpoint of its extent, both in terms of the percentage 
of the school population that is retarded and the number 
of years of retardation. Very little study has been made, 
however, of the causes of retardation or the characteristics 
of retarded individuals. It seems strange, indeed, that 
no one has endeavored to make any thorough analysis of 
this problem from the standpoint of causation, an analysis 



SOME PEESENT EDUCATIONAL TENDENCIES 45 

that would seem possible on the basis of intensive study 
of an unselected, representative group of retarded children. 
In studies of the elimination of children from school, 
the main concern has been to determine the percentage 
of those who withdraw at each school grade. Van Den- 
burg's 1 more thorough study of the conditions affecting 
elimination in the public high schools of New York City 
covers the nationality and occupation of the parents, the 
educational and vocational careers of older brothers and 
sisters, the economic status of the family, the pupils' 
valuation of a high school education and the occupations 
in which they hoped to engage. But interesting as this 
study is and valuable as is the information it gives regard- 
ing the force of certain environmental and home condi- 
tions, it takes little account of the influence of one possibly 
very important factor, namely, lack of adjustment of 
the course of study to the interest and capacity of the 
individual student. Van Denburg recognizes this as one 
element, though he offers no data on the point. In the 
chapter entitled "New Courses and New Types of 
Schools", he says, "Among the many conclusions possible 
there seems at least one conclusion that we all must draw 
from this investigation taken as a whole, namely that an 
extremely large percentage of the population enters high 
school unwilling or unable to benefit properly by the 
instruction which is offered at present. ... To permit 
the pupils to drag along in courses for which they have 
no aptitude and in which they are visibly receiving little 
benefit is equally unjust, particularly to the city which 
provides, at so great an expense, costly and capable in- 
struction." It is evident that this is equally unjust 
to the pupils who are spending their time in schools whose 
function avowedly is to educate them. We are in great 

1 Van Denburg, J. K., "Causes of Elimination of Students in Public 
Secondary Schools of New }fork City", 1911. 



46 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

need of duplication of this type of investigation in regard 
to elimination in the lower grades, particularly from the 
standpoint of the ability of the child as correlated with 
courses that are offered. 

It is true the school has not been altogether unaware of 
this failure in the past to meet the needs of all children, 
and some few measures have been undertaken, both as 
regards administration and courses of study, to improve 
the situation. On the administrative side certain ex- 
ceedingly interesting innovations are being tried in an 
effort to make the school a more flexible organization. 
The inauguration of pre-vocational schools, the organizing 
of the school into two six-year divisions instead of an 
eight-year grammar-school course followed by a four-year 
high-school course, the plan of one continuous twelve- 
year course — all these are examples of present-day at- 
tempts to improve school administration in order to reach 
the individual more effectively. 

Related to this same problem of adjustment to meet 
individual ability and interest is the present-day tendency 
toward establishing more and more elective courses. 
There is no doubt that this newer feature of our schools 
is partly based upon the recognition of the principle that 
all children are not equally able to benefit by the same 
training. Granting the wisdom of this differentiation of 
courses, there still remains the question of the basis on 
which the selection is to be made. Is present selection 
of courses made in accordance with each individual's 
ability in the various fields, and upon whose judgment 
does the selection rest? Too frequently considerations 
that are not really valid enter into the decision. The 
child himself may be influenced by the choice of friends, 
or by the idea that one course is easier than another, or 
the parents may make the decision for him according to 
some preconceived notion of what constitutes an educa- 



SOME PRESENT EDUCATIONAL TENDENCIES 47 

tion. Too little consideration is given to the adaptability 
of the child for the courses that are offered, and his past 
successes and failures are frequently not regarded as es- 
sential in the choice. 

Then, too, this liberal attitude is found only in high 
school or in the year or two preceding it. Probably the 
introduction of elective courses is not practicable in the 
lower grades, where the subject matter is of such a char- 
acter that all children require it, but even there recogni- 
tion of the principle of individual needs is wise, if only 
for the adaptation of methods of teaching in special cases. 
Concerning courses of study there is at present much 
discussion, but very little in the way of definite conclusion. 
All of us are familiar with the fact that new subjects are 
being added to the curriculum, and that there is great 
difference of opinion in regard to the advisability of re- 
taining many of them. On the one hand, we find those 
who believe that we still should continue the old type of 
education which stressed the three R's and included 
some subjects unrelated to practical life, but believed 
to be of disciplinary value. On the other hand, there are 
those who think that information and mental discipline 
apart from the activities of daily life do not accomplish 
the desired end. They say real education consists in 
developing power over the forces of social life, and that 
all selection of topics and methods should be worked out 
in accordance with the intrinsic social value of the content. 
y The whole problem is involved, and it is not intended 
to enter into the controversy except as it applies to in- 
dividuals with special defects or with special abilities. 
In these cases school work must be adapted to the un- 
usual conditions if the individual is to be educated. The 
typical school and vocational failures that are cited afford 
proof of the futility of any other point of view. 
Consideration of vocational failures leads at once to 



48 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

another group of problems now arousing much interest 
in the educational world, but as yet far from solved. The 
only one with which we are here concerned is the possi- 
bility of vocational guidance, particularly in its relation 
to educational diagnosis. Some of those who are closely 
identified with the movement for vocational guidance are 
skeptical of the help that psychological study of the in- 
dividual offers." Our own feeling on the subject is that, 
while acknowledging the present limitations, one must 
recognize certain very definite possibilities of diagnosis 
even now, as well as the considerable hope for future 
development in this field. In general, it should be said 
that our knowledge of the mental processes required in 
various industries is very scanty and uncertain; until 
this knowledge is increased one cannot be sure of the 
correlations that exist between what is tested and 
industrial efficiency. Certainly, at the present time, 
subtle distinctions and definite statements concerning 
correlations can rarely be made. One cannot be sure 
that laboratory results would obtain if experimentation 
were made under the conditions of the workshop, where 
a number of other factors enter into the situation. 1 

Nevertheless, within wide limits, advice in regard to 
vocations may be safely made on the basis of results of 
psychological examinations. No one doubts for an in- 
stant that special disabilities preclude the possibility of 
success in certain fields of industrial endeavor. The 
case-histories given later illustrate the fact that some 
grave errors might be avoided in the placing of boys and 
girls in the industrial world. 

Though one trend of the present is the assumption by 

1 A recent book by H. L. Hollingworth ("Vocational Psychology", 
1916) summarizes the present possibilities in this field, indicates the 
general methods that have thus far been employed in efforts toward 
vocational testing, and enumerates some of the tests that are helpful 
for this purpose, 



SOME PRESENT EDUCATIONAL TENDENCIES 49 

the school of a certain amount of responsibility for ob- 
taining positions for boys and girls, yet little cognizance 
is taken of qualities and abilities or disabilities that later 
become important factors in vocational success. The 
irrationality of our present scheme, which takes no ac- 
count even of such characterizations of prospective em- 
ployes as teachers could give on the basis of their knowl- 
edge of children, quite apart from psychological study, 
leads to great waste. One great hope for future better 
vocational adjustment is through the application of what 
can be learned during school life by teachers and clinical 
psychologists of special fitness for different industrial 
occupations. 

Interpretation of all the movements we have briefly 
reviewed from the point of view of their purpose, strength- 
ens our thesis that intensive observation of individuals 
is complementary to investigation of whole groups. 
Through individual diagnosis such as we have out- 
lined in the previous chapters, much may be learned 
that will have direct application to changes in subjects 
to be taught and methods to be used, at least in problem 
cases, as well as in applying to vocational guidance what 
may be learned through studying the facts of individual 
differences. 



CHAPTER V 
Special Defects in Number Work 

Not long ago the statement was made by Suzzallo l 
that "attempts to inquire into the special psychology of 
the arithmetical processes through experimentation and 
control have not been numerous or influential on current 
practice." Indeed, there is comparatively little litera- 
ture bearing upon any questions of experimental peda- 
gogy, Meumann's recent book being the first attempt at 
any thorough or complete presentation of the problems 2 
or of solutions in so far as they are based on either analy- 
sis or experimentation. A few thinkers have endeavored 
to determine the psychological processes that underlie 
number work, but little has been written on the subject, 
compared with the volumes which discuss methods and 
devices from a logical rather than from a psychological 
standpoint. 

As long ago as 1897, McLennan and Dewey, 3 writing 
on the psychology of number, devoted considerable 
discussion to the mental processes involved. The point 
of view presented is that number is a rational concept, 
not a sense fact, that it has its basis in concrete experi- 
ence, and that it involves, in the main, the psychological 
processes of discrimination and generalization, under 

1 Suzzallo, Henry, "The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic ", 1912. 

2 Meumann, Ernst, "Vorlesungen zur Einfuhrung in die Experimen- 
ted Padagogik", 1914. 

3 McLennan and Dewey, "Psychology of Number ", 1897, 

50 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 51 

which latter head are included abstraction and the power 
of grouping. Discrimination leads the child to a recog- 
nition of objects as units; from undefined wholes he 
advances to a concept of separate parts. On the other 
hand, he learns by his own activity to combine parts into 
definite wholes; he sees separate objects as a group or 
unity. Thus, it is by the power of abstraction that he 
comes to neglect all characteristic qualities of an object 
other than its number. When he gathers like units into 
a whole he has advanced to the second step in general- 
ization, namely, to grouping. Hence, these authors 
conclude that the concept of number cannot be taught by 
the mere presentation of things, but only by such a presen- 
tation as will stimulate discrimination and abstraction, as 
previously explained. Or, to express the idea somewhat 
differently, we might say that these writers emphasize 
the fact that there may be clear percepts of things quite 
unaccompanied by definite numerical concepts. The 
development of these numerical concepts requires the 
child to compare and relate, to discriminate and gen- 
eralize. 

Lanner, in his article, " Wie Lernt das Kind Zahlen ? " * 
discusses the development which takes place from the 
stage at which the child uses numerical terms as names 
without numerical significance, and the stage at which 
numerical terms express a real concept of number. The 
realization of this difference is shown by Binet when he 
cautions against accepting the child's ability to say 
numerals serially as equivalent to the power to count the 
number of objects in a group. 

The most thorough discussion of the whole problem is 
to be found in Meumann's chapter on the subject. He, 
too, feels that there has been as yet no adequate analysis 

1 Lanner, A., " Wie Lernt das Kind Zahlen? " Zeitschrift fur Philosophie 
und Padagogik, 1903. 



52 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

of the mental processes involved and that the study of 
the development of number concept, frequently reached 
before school age, has hardly been undertaken. He states 
that Pestalozzi was the first to formulate any underlying 
principles and his only contribution concerns basing the 
teaching of arithmetic on perception of objects, after 
which there should follow a study of the grouping of 
objects and of their relationship to each other. 

Meumann agrees in general with this point of view, but 
discusses much more in detail the psychology of the 
subject. He states that the concept of number develops 
late, that it rests upon a basis of counting objects, and 
from this experience with the concrete there gradually 
grows an understanding of abstract number relations, 
while counting itself becomes purely mechanical. The 
stage of development of number concept with which 
children enter school varies greatly and depends largely 
upon environmental opportunities. Eckhardt's experi- 
ments * have shown this, and in measuring scales for 
intelligence, such as the Binet-Simon and the Terman- 
Childs, tests involving numbers are placed relatively 
late. This late development is to be accounted for by 
the fact that some of the higher mental processes, such 
as abstraction, analysis, and comprehension, are required. 
It is only by abstracting from the concrete background 
that the idea of number, as such, is evolved. The child 
analyzes his own experience and ultimately reaches a 
comprehension of the function of number. 

But performance in elementary arithmetic involves sev- 
eral other main factors. The mechanical manipulation 
of the fundamental steps requires memory for number 
and the formation of arbitrary associations. It is upon 
these two mental processes that both accuracy and speed 

1 Eckhardt, K., " Beobachtungen uber das Zahlenverstandnis der 
Schulrekruten." Zeitschrift fur experimentelle P&dagogik, 8, 1909. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 53 

are based ; by means of memory definite habits of reaction 
are established so that arithmetic can be performed with- 
out thinking over the various steps in a problem. 

Nowhere have I found a summary such as the follow- 
ing which combines the partial analyses of various writers. 
(1) The concept of number is built up through actual 
experience in handling objects. (2) On the basis of this 
active experience there is evolved a comprehension of the 
function of number on the one hand, and of numerical 
relationships on the other. (3) To succeed in the 
process of evolving a complete concept of number, the 
child needs to analyze and compare, to discriminate, 
and finally to abstract; that is, there must be ulti- 
mately a transition from concrete to abstract. (4) Mem- 
ory processes are implicated and particularly essen- 
tial in the mechanical aspects of number manipulation. 
(5) Arbitrary association is an element in the learning 
process. 

Concerning the role played by other subsidiary mental 
functions, there is considerable disagreement, for example, 
regarding the relationship of the various types of imagery. 
Eckhardt * endeavored to find by experimentation what 
significance visual elements have for memory for num- 
bers and for the performance of the fundamental oper- 
ations. His conclusion is that children who visualize well 
use this type of imagery in their arithmetic work, and that 
it is a great help to them. He believes that these children 
are superior both in memory for number and readiness in 
counting. He urges that all types be trained to use 
visual imagery in number work, since he believes it to 
be such a great advantage. Children who predomi- 
nantly visualize may be somewhat slower, but they are 
far more accurate, according to his findings. 

1 Eckhardt, K., "Visuelle Erinnerungsbilder beim Rechnen." Zeit- 
schrift fiir experimentelle Padagogik, 5 a 1907. 



54 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Lobsien, 1 on the other hand, offers proof of the oppo- 
site. He found in his experimentation a fairly high cor- 
relation between auditory memory and facility in both 
written and oral arithmetic, whereas there was an in- 
verse relationship between visual memory and written 
and oral arithmetic. It is but fair to add that there 
has been criticism of both these studies, and the problem 
at present remains largely unsettled. 

It can readily be seen that in certain aspects arith- 
metic depends upon other functions. Thus, in the solv- 
ing of arithmetical problems, reason often is involved. 
The place of reasoning in the teaching of mechanical 
features of arithmetic leads us to a further problem. It 
is evident that in learning the fundamental processes 

— addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division 

— memory alone may be relied on very largely, and no 
doubt very many children learn number combinations 
and their manipulations on the basis of sheer rote mem- 
ory. They are rarely taught, nor do they perhaps need 
to know the rationalities, for example of the decimal sys- 
tem. They know that in addition of two-place numbers, 
one adds the digits of the right-hand column and puts in 
the answer the unit number of the total and "carries" 
the remainder to be added to the integers of the left- 
hand column. The "borrowing" of a number in sub- 
traction is learned without any explanation of the logic 
back of the performance. In most instances the child 
does as he is told to do by the teacher, and through prac- 
tice establishes definite habits of reaction in given situa- 
tions. 

Suzzallo has discussed at length the principles upon 
which to decide whether habituation or rationalization 
shall be stressed. The point to be here added is that, 

1 Lobsien, M., "Korrelation zwischen Zahlengedachtnis und Rechen- 
wertung." Zeitschrift fiir Padagogische Psychologic 1911. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 55 

valid as his generalizations may be for the majority of 
children, there are instances where specialized defects of 
one kind or another may require that other than ordinary 
procedures be adopted. 

If now, in our study of individual problem cases, we 
find a child who is greatly retarded in number work, 
who seems to be incapable of normal advancement in 
this subject, it becomes necessary to make such an inten- 
sive investigation by means of psychological tests that 
we shall be able, if possible, to determine wherein the 
difficulty lies. If we know the psychological processes 
involved in the learning of arithmetic, we ought to test 
these various mental functions in the individual in order 
to find which are normal and which are not. Since mem- 
ory for number and the ability to form arbitrary asso- 
ciations are elements in the learning of number work on 
the mechanical side, we must find whether these pro- 
cesses function normally in each individual case. Fur- 
thermore, the more fundamental problems must likewise 
be answered, namely, whether the child has any concept 
of number and, if so, whether he has been able to form 
those abstractions which are necessary in the perform- 
ance of the usual school tasks. Perhaps he is able to 
solve problems when using concrete material and yet 
not able to perform correctly abstract work. 

On the other hand, it may be that the methods which 
are ordinarily successful fail. It is quite conceivable 
that whereas habituation may be usually quite ade- 
quate, rationalization should be substituted in certain 
specific cases where memory powers are particularly 
faulty. Herein may lie the explanation of a fact pointed 
out by Judd, 1 that in the same school system some chil- 
dren haVe been found who succeed better on work in 

1 Judd, C. H., " Survey of Cleveland Schools." " The Cleveland 
Foundation " 1918. 



56 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

arithmetic of the advanced grades than previously in the 
lower grades. That this cannot be due to general poor 
teaching is proven, since it is not a feature of the class as 
a whole, but only of certain individuals. 

Before concluding that failure in any individual is due 
to special defect, it is necessary, of course, to be careful 
not to confuse this with the effects of poor teaching. 
Sometimes the teaching has been such that certain fun- 
damental principles have not been thoroughly estab- 
lished, and the child may do much of the work correctly, 
but have trouble with some one step in the processes. He 
may be able to do the higher work and yet fail in some of 
the easier steps. For example, a child may be quite 
accurate in multiplication and addition and yet not per- 
form subtraction correctly; or he may never have been 
taught the correct use of the zero, so that wherever this 
is involved, errors are made. Of course, this is a matter 
of poor and inadequate teaching rather than any difficulty 
with the child. 

A number of cases are here presented, in all of which 
there is one common feature, namely, the individual 
proves himself normal, except for special disability in 
number work. The question is whether the mental pro- 
cesses as studied by psychological tests can be analyzed 
in order to explain the defect that is found. 

Case 7. The following illustration of inability in 
number work probably rests on a basis of an exceeding 
defect in auditory memory for numbers, uncompen- 
sated for by training suited to special characteristics. 

Willard Z., 15i years old, was studied on several occa- 
sions and at considerable length. It was found that he 
did many things very well, including tests of such diffi- 
culty as to prove that the boy was, in general, quite 
capable. In marked contradistinction to results on 
other tests and other school subjects, we found that he 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 57 

was an absolute failure in the handling of numbers. He 
failed on each of the four fundamental processes; he 
could not add four three-place numbers correctly, nor 
could he subtract, multiply, or divide. Although he 
had learned the multiplication table by rote, yet when 
he tried to use it he became confused, made many errors, 
and did not succeed in getting a correct answer in any 
of a number of examples given. 

Even more amazing was the fact that the boy could 
not make the simplest change, in spite of the fact that he 
had been employed for months and consequently had 
handled money. His mother told us that she could 
not send him to the store to make any purchases because 
he did not know if the correct change were given him. 
We found that he could not tell how much money would 
be left from half a dollar if thirty-six cents were spent, 
nor the change left from a dollar after eighty-seven 
cents worth of goods had been purchased, When the 
money was before him he could not make change; 
indeed, in this last problem, he told us that twenty-seven 
cents would be left, but even this he could not actually 
count out. He made change correctly only when han- 
dling nickels or multiples thereof. In an effort to perform 
very simple problems orally he became altogether con- 
fused. This was true whether reasoning was involved 
or not. He tried very hard, without success, to find the 
cost of two thirds of a dozen oranges when a dozen cost 
twenty-four cents; he could not tell the cost of eight 
articles if five cost a quarter. He was no more success- 
ful in giving the answer to the following, How much is 
(7 + 8 + 3) X 2? He added change totaling $1.25 
correctly, but even here he did this by counting by nickels 
and dimes. 

Construction tests were done extremely well, by a 
thoroughly rational method and with a quick perception 



58 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

of relationships. Tests for mental representation and 
analysis, while more difficult for him, were accomplished 
successfully. He showed on tests very good ^ appercep- 
tions, normal control of verbal associations, and normal 
ability to form new associations. He followed directions 
well. Judged by the Binet scale he was normal in abil- 
ity. None of the tests for separate mental functions 
thus far enumerated occasioned him any difficulty ; they 
were performed rapidly and readily. 

When memory powers were studied, remarkable find- 
ings were obtained. Rote visual memory was normal. 
He accurately reproduced drawings shown him, but it 
was a different story when auditory powers were tested. 
To our great amazement we found that the boy could 
remember only four numerals, and although tested on 
different occasions and given a great many trials, he never 
succeeded in repeating five numerals presented audi- 
torily. He did, on the other hand, repeat seven numerals 
given visually. As for logical material, he gave fifteen 
out of twenty items when he himself read a passage, and 
eight out of twelve items when the passage was read to 
him — results that are better in comparison than those 
for rote memory. Thus we see that while visual memory 
tests presented no peculiarity, the achievement on the 
rote auditory tests was worse than that expected of a 
normal eight-year-old child. The auditory memory 
powers of many low grade feeble-minded are far better 
than those of this otherwise capable boy. 

He read fluently and with good expression. He was 
able to give a correct reproduction of the main ideas con- 
tained in the passage read, except that here his inability 
to remember numbers was again evident. He reproduced 
correctly the substance of a "help wanted" advertise- 
ment, except for the numbers given. He could not 
remember the number of the office building nor the num- 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 59 

ber of the room where the applicant should apply. He 
wrote a legible hand and spelled correctly all the words 
given him in a fairly difficult dictation. 

The boy was quite conscious of his own defect in num- 
ber work and after leaving regular school and beginning 
to work he had attended night school hoping to gain 
there some knowledge of arithmetic. He had gone for 
three weeks and then stopped, quite discouraged. He 
realized that all his school career had been hampered by 
his difficulty, and, indeed, he had only reached fourth 
grade in spite of his very evident capacity for acquiring 
knowledge of many kinds. 

Except in the light of his successes and failures on psy- 
chological tests, it would be difficult to explain his in- 
ability to learn arithmetic by ordinary methods. One 
could only have concluded without tests that he has a 
very specialized defect, but there could be no under- 
standing of the basis for it. The explanation is evident 
when his exceedingly poor auditory memory for numbers 
is discovered. One may ask whether the boy had any 
concept of number. Certain it is he has had opportu- 
nity for acquiring this if only through his experience while 
working. As for powers of discrimination and abstrac- 
tion, which are involved in the transition from experience 
with the concrete to facility with abstract number com- 
binations, no defect for these is found on tests. If they 
are at fault and are factors in his inability to perform 
arithmetic work, they are at least specialized and true 
only in this one field. 

It is impossible to state definitely whether any amount 
of training would have overcome this innate lack ; it is 
certain that now, at his age, it would still be unprofitable 
to endeavor to teach him by the usual methods, which 
have already proved ineffectual in his case, since his 
training had been extended over more than eight years. 



60 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

The only recommendation one could make in such a case 
is that the boy should be taught by a method adapted 
to his mental peculiarities. Since he has such poor 
auditory memory, one could hardly rely upon mere rote 
auditory training and drill. It would seem wiser to use 
his good powers of reasoning and visualization and to 
teach by a method which might be for the majority 
uneconomical and clumsy. 

The social implications of the boy's defect are difficult 
to measure. Willard had been in court several times be- 
cause of sex delinquencies. His mind seemed fairly 
obsessed by bad sex ideas; he had written several ob- 
scene letters. His actions can be accounted for partly, 
at least, on the basis of sex knowledge learned at a school 
to which he had been sent about two years previously. 
Furthermore, the boy was in the midst of adolescence 
and premature in sexual development. It cannot be 
definitely stated that his lack of ability for certain mental 
tasks had any direct relation to his misconduct, but, on 
the other hand, it is a fair assumption that had his school 
progress been altogether normal, he might have developed 
good mental interests which would have been sufficiently 
strong to prevent the growth of delinquent tendencies 
which he showed. There is a possibility that the low 
grade he reached in school and the discouragements 
resulting therefrom were factors in his career. 

We learned that the heredity in the case was not good. 
The father had been alcoholic and abusive, had deserted 
his family when Willard was three years old. The 
mother had later obtained a divorce. She herself appeared 
to be a good and normal woman. The developmental 
history was negative, and environmental conditions had 
been fairly satisfactory, except during the time that the 
boy attended the school mentioned above. 

His physical development was normal except for sex 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 61 

prematurity. He had extremely defective vision, partly 
corrected by glasses. It was claimed that his vision 
had been affected by an accident which occurred a couple 
of years previously, when he had been hit in the temple 
by a rock. There was a small scar over one eye and some 
bone involvement. All other findings on the physical 
side were negative. 

Case 8. Next is given an illustration of defect for num- 
ber work where there is not merely poor auditory memory, 
but this is combined with poor powers of forming asso- 
ciations with symbolic material. 

Alfred T., 16J- years old, was found on mental tests to 
be quite irregular in his abilities and disabilities. In 
spite of good educational advantages, the results on 
school work were not at all satisfactory, and particularly 
was this true in the field of arithmetic. He read only 
fairly well, making errors on small words, showing not 
so much a disability as a lack of facility ; that is, he was 
quite inaccurate and careless in his reading, his failures 
being often on simple words, whereas difficult portions of 
the passage were read correctly. He wrote a childish 
hand and made some errors in writing from dictation. 
However, more striking was the fact that, although he 
had been attending business college for the purpose of 
becoming a bookkeeper, he was unable to add correctly 
five three-place numerals. He worked at this very 
painstakingly and slowly. He had not the slightest 
conception of the solution of problems such as interest, 
though at the time he was receiving practice in this at 
school. He very frankly said that he could not remem- 
ber the bookkeeping work. 

He did tests with concrete material remarkably well, 
attaining excellent records. He showed not only quick 
perception, but good reasoning powers in such work, and 
proved to have extremely good psychomotor control as 



62 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

well. On the other hand, his work with abstract material 
was not nearly as well done. He made a very poor record 
on the so-called learning test, where the association of 
arbitrary symbols is involved. This test, readily per- 
formed correctly by bright eight-year-old children, was 
most difficult for him, and the result was far below nor- 
mal. His control of verbal associations was likewise 
not good ; he made a very poor record on the opposites 
test. Concerning powers of analysis, the results were 
rather irregular, the test-findings differed one from the other. 
Memory powers seemed to be unequal, visual memory 
being better than auditory. In reproducing a passage 
presented visually, he omitted only three out of twenty 
items, whereas in the passage presented by auditory 
means he omitted four out of twelve items and altered 
other details. 

His social reactions corroborated the test results which 
indicated his special abilities and defects. Alfred was 
the youngest of four children, the other three of whom 
had been through school and business college and had 
been successful in office work. The parents were intelli- 
gent people of foreign birth, and the family was distinctly 
on the upgrade. They were proud of the success of their 
other children and anxious to give this boy an equally 
good education, which they conceived would best be 
acquired through training in a business college. 

Alfred had attended public school for eight years, 
where he reached the seventh grade ; then, at fourteen, 
he wished to go to work. He had been employed at 
times, but had attended night school for seven months, 
after which he was sent by his parents to a business 
college in order to prepare him for bookkeeping. Just 
before leaving the public school he had been truant for 
three weeks. This was the beginning of his misconduct. 
Later, while attending business college, he ran away from 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBEK WOEK 63 

home and repeated this frequently thereafter, being gone 
as long as a month at a time. He was brought into court 
on two occasions because of this and once because he 
stole a revolver, the only known instance of theft on his 
part. 

During his absences from home he made his own way, 
frequently by selling papers and once by working at a 
livery stable. His employment record was good; he 
had worked at one place for seven months, but had given 
up this job because it was too hard for him. It was after 
this that the family sent him to the business college in 
hopes of "making a gentleman of him, the same as the 
others in the family." 

He was a big, strong boy, well developed and well 
nourished. His tonsils were greatly enlarged, and there 
was a total occlusion of one side of the nose from deflected 
septum. Vision was somewhat defective in one eye, but 
almost normal in the other. There was a constant fine 
tremor of outstretched hands and biting of the finger 
nails, indicating some nervousness. 

His delinquencies, that is, his truancy and running 
away, were due, no doubt, to several causes. They had 
begun while his mother was away on a visit to her parents, 
and oversight at home consequently was slackened. He 
had associated with bad companions who had led him 
to run away, but it is interesting to note that the first 
escapade of this sort was during the time he was attend- 
ing the business college. Then, too, there was probably 
some irritation because of his physical troubles, partic- 
ularly his defective vision, which may have interfered 
with his school work. Also, he was an unstable adoles- 
cent. 

Nevertheless, there is not the slightest doubt that one 
important factor in explaining the boy's misconduct was 
the unsuitable vocation for which he was being trained. 



64 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

He had not the slightest interest in bookkeeping and he 
was not fitted for the work. His people, well intentioned, 
did not appreciate the true situation ; they only felt that 
they were offering the best means to success such as his 
brothers and sisters had achieved. That the boy liked 
best driving and working with horses and that he had 
been able to take care of himself by working in these 
ways when he was away from home, did not mean any- 
thing to them, whereas it can readily be seen that even 
the association with bad companions might have been 
explained through the lack of interest the boy felt in his 
forced occupation. Had he been busily engaged in pur- 
suits which held his interest he might never have sought 
such companionship or have been so ready to follow sug- 
gestions made. 

The proof that these points were vital matters for his 
whole career is shown by the fact that, acting upon ad- 
vice given in the light of psychological findings, the boy 
was placed at farm work, and now, five years after he 
was first seen, we hear that he is still in the country and 
doing very well. He has worked satisfactorily, is earn- 
ing good wages, was long ago released from court super- 
vision, and is apparently happy with his station in life. 
His family have recognized the facts in the case and are 
themselves quite reconciled to his career as a farmer. 

Certainly the study of this boy was well worth while, 
and the practical results based upon the findings of this 
study are conclusive evidence of the social importance 
involved in the recognition of special abilities and dis- 
abilities. The educational applications cannot be so 
definitely stated, because when seen the boy was too 
old to make it practicable to give him any individual 
training. Had he been considerably younger one might 
have suggested definite methods whereby he would have 
improved, perhaps, in certain directions. Knowing that 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 65 

he was particularly poor in dealing with abstractions and 
likewise somewhat below par in auditory memory powers, 
arithmetic might have been approached from the concrete 
aspects and with emphasis on visual memory as a means 
of control. 

In any case, the school had not met his needs ade- 
quately. Had the special defect been so excessive that 
the boy could not be taught arithmetic even by adapted 
methods, the school should have been aware of the ne- 
cessity for so guiding the boy vocationally that he might 
have avoided sure failure. The school authorities should 
have been able to give to the parents the advice which 
was offered at the time of our study. 

Case 9. In this case is illustrated the fact that with 
normal ability to form arbitrary associations and with 
no defect in memory for numbers, there still may be 
failure in arithmetic because the concept of number is 
lacking. 

Mary L., 11 years old, appeared at first as extremely 
bright. She was such an alert, active girl, she talked so 
well and interestingly about many things, that she made 
a most favorable impression. On a wide range of tests 
for determining mental ability Mary did very well. She 
did construction tests in a rational manner ; she showed 
good apperceptive ability; she had no difficulty in asso- 
ciating arbitrary symbols and learned them with ease. 
On the Binet scale she graded to age, but even more 
interesting was the fact that on the common-sense tests 
included in that scale she did exceedingly well. She 
showed much shrewdness and good judgment for a girl 
of her age ; her sense of humor was keen, she very quickly 
perceived the absurd situations in the so-called incon- 
gruities test ; her answers were always relevant and well 
expressed. Her memory powers for rote material were 
just about normal for her age, neither exceptionally good 



66 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES _ 

nor exceptionally poor. She had much difficulty with 
tests involving mental representation when the task was 
at all difficult. 

In regard to her school work, she had learned to read 
fluently ; she wrote a fairly good hand and had no dif- 
ficulty whatever with spelling. Her school retardation 
— for she was only in the second grade — might have 
been due, in part, to early poor opportunities, as we shall 
see later, but her exceeding defect in number work would 
be enough to account for it. She had received private 
instruction during the vacation. In spite of this, now, 
when eleven years old, she could do none of the funda- 
mental processes except addition, and even this was 
done very slowly. She could not succeed with so simple 
a sum as subtracting eighteen from twenty-five ; it made 
no difference whether this was given her orally, as a 
written problem, or with actual money. She said that 
"taking seven from seven leaves seven." It was evi- 
dent that the common sense which she used in other 
situations had never been called into play in number 
work, otherwise she would surely not have made so stupid 
a remark. While she had learned a few of the number 
combinations orally, she very readily became confused. 
From the comments which she frequently made, it was 
apparent that numbers and words relating to them were 
meaningless to her. 

Our examination of this little girl showed that she had 
not the slightest concept of number. She was utterly 
unable to master the work of her class, because she had 
not the ability to grasp what was being done. Whether 
she could have made normal progress had the concept of 
number been developed first through dealing with num- 
ber relationships in concrete material, we have no way of 
knowing, but we feel sure that without this, the girl 
would become more and more confused by ordinary class- 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 67 

room procedure in this subject. It may be that this 
lack of concept of number was due somewhat to poor 
powers of mental representation, for no doubt this con- 
cept is developed through mentally representing to one- 
self relationships which constitute number. But Mary's 
native common sense and good general intelligence make 
it very probable that with individual help of the right 
kind she could be given the proper start and that her 
progress thereafter would be rapid. 

When we become acquainted with this little girl she had 
been adopted by some kindly people who had taken her 
from her own poor home, and we were never able to ob- 
tain a reliable account of either heredity or early envi- 
ronmental conditions. We know that when quite 
young she lived for a time in an institution. It may be 
that early she had poor educational opportunities, but 
for nearly two years, at least, she has had exceedingly 
good home conditions and splendid chances for education. 
Physically she was in excellent condition, except for slight 
strabismus corrected by glasses. She was strong and well 
developed. 

Mary was easily able to do much higher work in other 
school studies and in consequence she was wasting much 
of her time in school. The feeling of incompetence and 
discouragement which would naturally be aroused in her 
through failure and by being thrown with children so much 
younger than herself was likely to be most injurious. The 
injustice of the situation is manifest. 

Case 10. This case illustrates the point that if the 
concept of number is not developed early, the failure in 
arithmetic continues in spite of ordinary drill and train- 
ing for- a number of years. 

John T., 14 years and 10 months of age, was brought 
for examination because of his lack of progress in school. 
The mental examination soon showed that the source 



68 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

of the trouble lay in a defect for number work. How 
to explain this defect was a more difficult matter. He 
could not add four three-place numbers; he could not 
subtract, multiply, or divide, nor could he answer the 
simplest problems given him orally. He said that eight 
apples and five apples together made fifteen. He knew 
the date and his age, but could not tell the year in which 
he was born. With a square box in his hand, after he 
was told one side was two inches long, he could not tell 
the total number of inches on the four sides. With actual 
money before him he could not make change. He failed 
to add simple amounts correctly ; he knew that two dimes 
made twenty cents and two nickels ten cents, but when 
pennies were added to this his answers were ludicrously 
incorrect. Simple problems involving reason were be- 
yond him, although his reasoning powers, as shown on 
other tests, were very good. 

There was a great discrepancy between results on tests 
for arithmetical ability and all other performances. 
Problems with concrete material were solved very well 
indeed. There was quick perception of the relationships 
involved, and rational methods were used in the solu- 
tions. General powers of apperception were quite nor- 
mal, and this was true of memory processes and powers 
of representation. The rote memory tests were done 
very well; there was no difficulty with memory for 
numbers ; the boy could restate correctly problems which 
he could not answer. He had learned in rote fashion 
the multiplication tables. His general intelligence, as 
gauged by Binet tests, was normal for his age. Read- 
ing, writing, and spelling were all performed satisfac- 
torily. *M 

That the concept of number was so entirely lacking 
could be explained, no doubt, only on the basis of some 
innate defect. The mother told us that she herself had 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 69 

attempted to teach the boy numbers when he was quite 
small, even before he was sent to school, but in regard to 
arithmetic "it was as if he were color blind. " She could 
not send him to make purchases because he never knew 
if he had the correct change. His teachers had recog- 
nized his inability in this school subject, but no one had 
been able to help him. Just what methods of help had 
been employed we did not learn. 

From the very intelligent, reliable mother we were 
able to obtain a thorough account of heredity and devel- 
opmental history, both of which were altogether nega- 
tive. The physical examination, made with care, re- 
vealed no sensory or other troubles. 

It was quite apparent that the boy's disability had 
been a great influence in his school career. He had only 
reached the fifth grade when we saw him, whereas a 
sister, who began school at the same time as he, was al- 
ready in the high school. Very fortunately, the boy was 
not sensitive in regard to his difficulty and his school 
retardation, and there was no complaint in regard to 
his behavior, except that he was exceedingly troublesome 
in the classroom. Just recently he had become a truant. 
Considering his handicap and that he was frequently 
forced to repeat his grade and was, in consequence, thrown 
constantly with younger children, it was surprising that 
he had not become more of a problem from the stand- 
point of his conduct. 

Case 11. Sometimes, as in the following case, the 
difficulty is not easy to explain, for we may find almost 
all of the psychological processes which underlie number 
work quite normal. Here memory for numbers and 
powers of arbitrary association are not defective, nor is 
there any lack of ability to form mental representations. 
On the other hand, the step from the concrete to the 
abstract seems never to have been well established. 



70 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Henry M., 11 years old, was found exceedingly incapa- 
ble in number work. In spite of his exceptionally good 
educational opportunities — good at least as ordinarily 
judged — he was unable to perform correctly any of the 
fundamental processes; he could not add, subtract, 
multiply, or divide. He had only slight knowledge of 
the multiplication tables, and he could not carry out the 
process of multiplication in even fairly simple prob- 
lems. He failed to solve such easy oral examples as, if 
six cost twenty-four cents what will eight cost? It was 
quite evident that the boy had gained practically nothing 
from all his school training in number work. Other 
school subjects were done satisfactorily; he wrote a 
rapid, legible hand, misspelling words only occasionally. 
He read fluently and intelligently, and his reading had 
covered a wide range for a boy of his years. 

We found he solved performance tests readily, making 
a remarkably good record both for speed and for accu- 
racy. His records on construction tests are among the 
best ever made in our laboratory, even on those adapted 
for subjects much older than he. They prove that the 
boy has unusually good ability in the perception of rela- 
tionships of form, in reasoning with concrete material, 
and in following directions with actual material when 
several steps are required. Nor was any difficulty shown 
on the so-called learning test, where the associations of 
arbitrary symbols were formed with ease. Memory 
power for both rote and logical material was normal for 
his age. Apperception was quite normal, and tests for 
analysis and mental representation were likewise well 
done. Indeed, there was conclusive proof that the boy 
had very good native ability in many directions. 

Since this boy was first seen some four years ago, we 
have had corroboration of his abilities and disabilities 
through frequent school reports. In several schools 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 71 

which he has attended his records in industrial work 
have been exceptionally good, the grade in one school 
having been 100. In arithmetic his standing has been 
consistently low. The last report stated that his mathe- 
matical sense is far below par, although he has been 
able to master a few of the mechanics of arithmetic. In 
informational subjects the boy has always shown a keen 
interest, and his knowledge of geography, history, and 
literature is beyond his school grade. 

The results of our mental tests led us to believe that 
the explanation of his extreme incapacity for handling 
numbers rests upon poor powers of dealing with arith- 
metical abstractions. Certainly, in concrete fields this 
boy shows extremely good ability. That his memory 
powers are normal is indicated not only by the psycho- 
logical tests for these mental processes, but likewise by 
the fact that he has been able to acquire such a good fund 
of information. On the other hand, numerical relation- 
ships which involve powers of abstraction and appreci- 
ation of relationships of a very abstract nature, are alto- 
gether wanting. Although the defect is surprising, con- 
sidering the boy's other innate abilities, the fact that it 
exists is obvious enough. We can only conclude that 
there is a special defect which makes it difficult for him 
to develop a concept of number. 

That this particular disability has been of great sig- 
nificance in his school career and has led to much irrita- 
tion throughout his entire school life, goes without say- 
ing. The boy had been lowered repeatedly in his school 
grade and had come to regard himself as a school failure. 
After the case was studied it still remained practically 
impossible to obtain the training suited to his needs. 
In the private schools to which he has been subsequently 
sent no teacher evidently has appreciated the problem or 
understood the psychological aspects of the situation. 



72 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

No special adaptation of method, such as is really re- 
quired, has ever been attempted. In spite of the fact 
that this boy has attended school where industrial 
courses are given, we doubt whether the work in arith- 
metic has actually been based upon these courses. In 
consequence, the step from the concrete to the abstract 
has never been bridged, and the understanding of num- 
ber relationships in the light of their use in solving real 
problems has never been evolved. 

In this particular instance no other explanation of 
school retardation was found. The boy was in excellent 
physical condition, the parents cooperated with the school 
and evinced in every possible way their desire for the boy 
to advance normally. 

To show that an ordinary amount of testing, such as is 
frequently given merely to differentiate mental normal- 
ity from feeble-mindedness, is inadequate to determine 
the underlying processes upon which arithmetical defect 
rests, the following cases are offered. In both, the prob- 
lems as presented to us were not educational or even 
vocational. 

Case 12. Lillian M., 15 years old, showed very good 
ability in many things, and yet she was utterly unable 
to solve very simple problems in arithmetic. In all 
motor tests given her she made records that were practi- 
cally as good as is obtainable. She did well on tests which 
required analysis and mental representation. She showed 
good powers of mental control and normal apperceptions. 
In school work her record was normal, except for arith- 
metic. She could add correctly, though this was done 
slowly, but all other number work was a failure. She 
made errors in subtraction, could not multiply or do simple 
examples in long division. In her case it seemed clear 
that the girl had been promoted in school in spite of her 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN NUMBER WORK 73 

inability to do the arithmetic work of her grades, but 
she was quite retarded, having only completed the fifth 
grade when she withdrew at fourteen years. 

In this case it was impracticable for the girl to receive 
any further training, and since her problem required 
only a verdict regarding normality, no other tests were 
given. From such findings we get little aid in discovering 
the basis for failure to master arithmetic. We are quite 
sure that there is a defect, but which of the underlying 
processes might explain it we do not know. 

Case 13. Arthur L., 17 years old, showed on mental 
examination his inability to grasp number work. At 
seventeen he was only in the sixth grade, no doubt be- 
cause of his special defect for numbers, for he was able 
to do other types of school work satisfactorily. Writing 
and spelling were done well, and he read a fairly difficult 
passage fluently, giving an accurate reproduction of the 
contents. That he was normal except in arithmetic was 
shown by the fact that he passed the 12-year Binet tests 
readily and showed normal powers of analysis and repre- 
sentation, normal powers in dealing with concrete ma- 
terial, and normal control of verbal associations. 

In arithmetic, he failed in long division, making errors 
in multiplication and in subtraction; indeed, he showed 
no comprehension of any of the principles involved in 
number work. Even worse were the results on oral 
problems. He could not subtract $1.57 from $2.00, nor 
solve so simple a problem as the following: At thirty- 
six cents a dozen how much would five oranges cost? 
In the test for continuous subtraction he made many 
errors. . . 

The point to be here emphasized is that routine and 
hurried testing, such as is frequently the custom even in 
connection with school laboratories, is insufficient for a 
rational understanding of these problem cases. Binet 



74 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

tests reveal nothing helpful in regard to the special defect, 
often not even indicating that it exists. To make the 
individual adjustments, which alone meet the situation 
adequately, much more intensive study is required, as 
indicated in the earlier cases cited. 



CHAPTER VI 
Special Defects in Language Ability 

From a practical standpoint it is found that the differ- 
ent aspects of language ability do not present a psycho- 
logical unity. We know that defects in one or several 
aspects may exist without involving other phases. As 
a simple illustration of this, may be mentioned the fact 
that we frequently have studied individuals who have 
great difficulty in mastering reading, but who, neverthe- 
less, speak well and seem to have no difficulty in the use 
of language as a medium of self-expression. This anomaly 
is very clearly shown in cases of feeble-minded verbalists, 
who, while unable to learn to read one language even 
fairly well, are able to converse in several. Then, too, 
we have known some who, while able to read quite well, 
have much difficulty in clear expression of their own ideas 
and little feeling for good use of language. Then there 
are those who are able to read fluently, but who cannot 
reproduce the ideas contained in the passage read. If 
all this is true, there must be distinct differences in the 
mental processes underlying language in its various as- 
pects. 

In discussing the topic of language, its teaching and 
the psychological principles involved, Meumann main- 
tains that the whole field, from reading to the learning of 
foreign languages, is a unit psychologically considered, 
and that it must therefore be regarded as such pedagogi- 

75 



76 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

cally. He includes the teaching of language, both native 
and foreign; reading, the interpretation of symbols; 
writing, the expression of ideas through the written word ; 
and even drawing as a graphic representation of thought. 
Now, it seems clear to us that if these form a unity, there 
must be psychological processes common to all of them. 
Unfortunately, in spite of lengthy discussion of these 
different phases of language ability, Meumann does not 
tell us anywhere what the common elements actually are. 
In our own presentation of defects in language ability, 
we find the necessity for treating the various problems 
separately. 

READING 

In regard to the psychology of reading, it may be noted 
that much experimental work has been done on the part 
played by the eye, that is, on the physical aspects of 
the process. Many experimenters have investigated the 
question of eye movements and the economics of percep- 
tion. It has been shown that the eye in its passage along 
a line pauses a number of times, and that it is during the 
pauses that we perceive the words. The length of these 
pauses and the number of them to a line are influences in 
the rate of reading. The formation of motor habits, the 
speed of reading in relation to length of line and size of 
print, the ease of grasping special words which can readily 
be grouped, as compared with those which cannot be so 
combined, have all been subjected to experimentation. 
Cattell l , Erdmann and Dodge 2 , Messmer 3 , Dearborn 4 , 

1 Cattell, J. McK., "Uber die Zeit der Erkennung und Benennung 
von Schriftzeichen, Bildern und Farben." " Wundt's Philosophische 
Studien ", II, 1885, and III, 1886. 

2 Erdmann and Dodge, " Psychologische Untersuchungen iiber das 
Lesen", 1898. 

3 Messmer, O., "Zur Psychologie des Lesens bei Kindern und Er- 
wachsenen ", 1904. 

4 Dearborn, W. F., "The Psychology of Reading." "Archives of 
Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods", Vol. IV, 1906. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 77 

Hamilton 1 , Huey 2 , and others, have all made contribu- 
tions in this field. 

Much less, however, has been done to analyze the mental 
processes which are concerned in reading. Able though 
Huey's work is from certain standpoints, yet he hardly 
discusses the essential psychological phases of reading, 
and all his pedagogical advice is based upon what might 
be called the physiology of reading. Meumann, however, 
presents in some detail other factors. He mentions the 
problems of the visual apparatus on the one hand, and 
the ideational aspects on the other. He says words and 
the mental content which they represent are presented 
through sensory symbols, which must be seen and inter- 
preted by the reader. There must be a recognition of 
letters and the association of them with sounds, after 
which combinations of letters become associated with 
combinations of sound, until whole words and phrases 
are recognized. These, in turn, are associated with mean- 
ings. Thus reading represents a complex activity based 
upon both analytical and synthetic processes. There 
are involved,: perception and interpretation of symbols, 
memory — both recognition and recall of immediately 
preceding ideas, comprehension, motor processes, emotion, 
and complex associations. 

There are a number of other questions that have a 
bearing on this general subject. One of these, the 
relationship of inner speech to ease and speed of 
reading, has been investigated by Pintner. 3 The ability 
to reproduce the meaning of what has been read is a 
further problem, one of the aspects of reading that is 

1 Hamilton, Francis, "The Perceptual Factors in Reading." "Ar- 
chives of Psychology." Columbia Contributions to Philosophy and 
Psychology, 17, 1907. 

2 Huey, E. B., "The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading", 1908. 

3 Pintner, R.,/' Inner Speech during Silent Reading." Psychological 
Review, 1913. 



78 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

measurable by tests. Of course, in order to reproduce 
what is read one must be able to grasp the thought con- 
veyed by printed words, and this requires a background 
of experience whereby to interpret the ideas expressed. 
Inability to do this is quite a different matter from in- 
ability to master the mechanics of reading. For acquiring 
the latter, Meumann states that teaching should be 
adapted to the various types of children, among whom 
he includes those who, because of strongly fluctuating 
attention, have difficulty in eye fixation. Such children 
require formal practice to aid them in acquiring sharper 
visual impressions. Further differentiation of teaching 
method might be considered necessary for individuals 
who use different types of imagery — visual, auditory, and 
motor. However, since vision, audition, and motor pro- 
cesses are all involved in reading, Meumann believes that, 
practically, little heed need be given to imagery types. 

The details of methods for teaching reading will not 
be entered into here ; there has been much debate con- 
cerning the relative merits of the different procedures now 
in use. It should be recognized that discussion has been 
largely based on logical deductions and that little of either 
practice or theory in this field rests upon any scientific 
basis. 

By way of summary, it may be said that analysis of 
the reading process shows that there are involved (a) 
perception of form and sound, and discrimination of 
forms and sounds ; (6) association of sounds with visually 
perceived letters, of names with groups of symbols, and 
of meanings with groups of words; (c) memory, motor, 
visual, and auditory; and (d) the motor processes, as 
used in inner speech and in reading aloud. Reviewing 
the whole process, we see that in the actual performance 
of reading there must be finally some synthetic process 
uniting all the separate elements. This is a point that 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 79 

has been little emphasized by students of the psychology 
of reading, but its validity and importance seem clearly 
established through our analysis of cases of special 
difficulty in reading. 1 

Analysis of the mental processes involved in reading 
has never been applied to individual cases of inability 
to learn to read, so far as we know. The fact that some 
individuals have a pronounced disability in this field has 
been observed, it is true. It is exceedingly interesting 
to find that neurologists and even ophthalmologists have 
dealt with this question far more than have psycholo- 
gists. It is the former who have reported and analyzed 
cases of so-called congenital word-blindness or alexia. 
Perhaps it would be best briefly to review the main con- 
tributions dealing with this subject. 

Morgan 2 told in 1896 of a lad, fourteen years old, 
who, in spite of much instruction, could read only a few 
of the simplest words, could write almost nothing from 
dictation, and made mistakes even in writing his own 
name. He learned to read the letters of the alphabet 
only after long and painstaking instruction, but he had 
no difficulty in reading numerals. He solved simple 
problems in algebra and could multiply three-place digits. 
He came of an intelligent family, and except for his special 
disability was considered not inferior to others of his 
age. Morgan believed the inability to learn to read and 
to write from dictation was due to some congenital defect 



1 As early as 1896, Richard Baerwald in his book "Theorie der Bega- 
bung ", discussing the psychology of reading, included the synthetic 
aspect. He calls synthesis in reading a mental function dealing with 
meanings of words and relationships of ideas whereby the content of a 
passage is grasped. He believes this synthetic process should be dif- 
ferentiated both from association and from apperception. However, 
we use synthesis to signify a process which binds together the separate 
elements in the mechanics of reading. 

2 Morgan, W. Pringle, "A Case of Congenital Word-Blindness,'' 
British Medical Journal, November, 1896, 



80 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

in the cortical center for visual memory of words and 
letters. Definite as his presentation of the case is in 
some aspects, there is no study of the various mental 
processes, not even of visual memory. 

Following the publication of this article several English 
ophthalmologists became very much interested in the 
problem, and from that date up to the present time they 
have reported a number of cases brought to them for 
examination as possibly suffering from defective vision. 
Hinshelwood has offered a book on the subject * and several 
articles containing in all four case-studies : 2 (1) A boy 
of eleven could not read letters, words, or numerals, yet 
he remembered pictures, recognized them later, and had 
such good auditory memory that he learned his reading 
lessons verbatim. (2) A boy, ten years old, said to be 
bright and intelligent, could read numbers well, knew 
his letters, but could read only a very few words. (3) A 
girl of ten after four years in school could read the book 
of Standard I only with difficulty. It had required nine 
months' teaching before she could recognize the letters 
of the alphabet. She, too, had good auditory memory, 
could spell and write correctly even from dictation, and 
could add, subtract, and multiply. (4) A boy of seven 
attended school three years without having gained power 
to read. He could repeat the alphabet orally, but had 
trouble in recognizing the letters. Oral spelling was quite 
satisfactory, and he could read figures up to twenty. 
He was considered by his mother to be a bright boy. 
Three months after he was first seen he was reported to 
have made excellent progress ; at that time he could read 
letters, the whole of the primer, and figures up to one 



1 Hinshelwood, James, " Letter-, Word-, and Mind-Blindness ", 
1902. 

2 Hinshelwood, James, "Congenital Word-Blindness", Lancet, May, 
1900; "Congenital Word-Blindness", Ophthalmic Review, 1902, 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 81 

hundred. This progress was attributed to training given 
him individually for several short periods a day. Hinshel- 
wood states that where there is no ocular defect and no 
lack of general intelligence, the diagnosis in such cases 
must be that of congenital word-blindness. He concludes, 
on the basis of the above cases, that "visual memories of 
words, letters, and figures are deposited in different areas 
of the cerebral cortex." He advocates the use of blocks 
for training, developing thereby "muscle memories" to 
take the place of "visual memories." 

Nettleship 1 reports a case of a boy of eleven who easily 
acquires information presented orally ; he can pronounce 
words spelled to him and spells orally fairly well. He is 
fond of carpentry, plays games quite well, his vision is 
normal, yet he can read only a few words. Another boy, 
age not stated, reads music and draws well, but cannot 
read words. Details, even information concerning the 
educational opportunities, are not given. This author 
presents three other cases all similar to the above, one of 
which has been frequently cited because Nettleship re- 
ported that nine years after the first examination the 
patient had progressed to the point of reading fluently, 
and, indeed, had become a lawyer. 

In 1904, Sidney Stephenson 2 described two cases: 
One, a boy of nine, was found to have good powers of 
observation and good visual memory; he could sketch 
the details of a machine or building. He reasoned well, 
but added to his great disability in spelling and reading 
was trouble with arithmetic. Six months later the boy's 
father stated that there had been improvement in both 
reading and arithmetic following individual instruction. 

1 Nettleship, E., "Cases of Congenital Word-Blindness or Inability 
to Learn to Read." Ophthalmic Review, 1901. 

2 Stephenson, Sidney, "Congenital Word-Blindness." Lancet, Sep- 
tember, 1904, 



82 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Before further educational efforts could be made, the lad 
unfortunately died. The second case was that of a boy 
of ten who for five years had been the victim of extreme 
habit-spasm and likewise suffered from defective hearing 
and defective vision. Heredity was negative; mentally 
he was said to be "bright as a lark and sharp as a needle." 
He had good memory, learned easily, and retained well 
what he learned. His school grades in divinity, history, 
and geography were good. In arithmetic his work graded 
twenty per cent. He could not read either printed matter 
or handwriting; he could copy from the printed book, 
but writing from dictation was very poor. 

Among later English writers may be mentioned C. J. 
Thomas. 1 This author apparently accepts as definitely 
localized, "Four special places in the cortex of the brain, 
which are known as speech-centers or word-centers. . . . 
These are the auditory speech-center, the visual speech- 
center, the motor speech-center, and the writing-center." 
In word-blindness it is the visual speech-center that is 
imperfect; "word memories cannot be made" and it is 
therefore difficult to learn to read, write, and spell. The 
cases discussed by Thomas indicate that he believes 
inability to write from dictation frequently involves 
defects in three of the speech-centers — auditory, visual, 
and writing. At other times the difficulty is due to 
imperfections or defect of "the associations between the 
visual speech-center and the writing-center." We do 
not know on what bases these conclusions rest. 

In an earlier study 2 he cites seven cases all too briefly, 
without any record of tests, and exhibiting no new or un- 
common features. But merely on the basis of ordinary 



1 Thomas, C. J., "The Aphasias of Childhood." Public Health 
(London), 1908. 

2 Thomas, C. J., " Congenital Word-Blindness and its Treatment", 
Ophthalmoscope, August, 1905. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 83 

observation, he makes the generalization that while 
visual memory for words may be very defective, 
visual memory for all else may be normal or even 
unusually good. He tells of a boy unable to read, 
who was nevertheless said to be a visualizer because 
his powers of observation and description were excellent. 
Another was said to have marvelous visual memory 
for objects. 

In 1911, McCall 1 reported very briefly a case re- 
sembling those previously described by others, but desig- 
nated by her an instance of congenital aphasia. More 
recently Whipham 2 gives in slightly more detail the case 
of an eight-year-old girl who cannot say the alphabet al- 
though she can write it perfectly on occasions. She cannot 
spell words of two syllables, cannot read even easy words, 
nor write from dictation. She can count to twenty and 
write numerals to twelve. She answers questions, obeys 
commands, has a good memory. She knows the days of 
the week, but not the months of the year. She has 
attended school for two years. 

Besides the work of the English writers, some few 
other cases have appeared in various journals. Otto 
Wernicke 3 of Buenos Ayres tells of a girl of nineteen who 
seemed of normal intelligence ; she spoke two languages, 
could read numbers correctly, but she could read printed 
matter only slowly and after spelling the words first. 
A boy of ten, whose father was alcoholic and whose older 
brother was feeble-minded, seemed lively and intelligent. 
He could read six-place numerals readily and could 
recognize geometrical figures. Letters were identified 

1 McCall, Eva, "Two Cases of Congenital Aphasia in Children." 
British Medical Journal, May, 1911. 

2 Whipham, T. R., "Congenital Word and Letter Blindness." 
British Journal Children's Diseases, Vol. 13, 1916. 

3 Wernicke, Otto, "Congenital Word-Blindness." Centralblatt fiXf 
Praktische Augenheilkunde, September, 1903. 



84 PSYCHOLOGY OP ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

with difficulty and syllables or words not at all. Foerster * 
tells of a man twenty-seven years old, who could copy a 
text, but could not read or understand what he had 
written; he recognized the letters separately and even 
single syllables, but no words. He could write three 
numerals from dictation and could read numbers of four 
digits. However, it should be added that this subject was 
feeble-minded. 

This case was discussed by Madame Dejerine, who be- 
lieves the term word-blindness should be confined to the 
sense in which it is used by neurologists, namely, loss of 
ability to read and write due to cerebral lesion on the 
part of one who had previously been able to do so. She 
felt it unwise to confuse a loss of function with the ab- 
sence of a function. Brissaud 2 and other French authori- 
ties concur in this view. 

Indeed, this is the standpoint of practically all neurolo- 
gists ; they discuss the results that follow definitely local- 
ized cortical lesions. It is noteworthy that even C. 
Wernicke 3 in his classic article on disturbances of written 
language, makes no mention of congenital word-blindness. 
Ladd and Woodworth 4 define word-blindness or alexia as 
"inability to read, occurring, of course, in a person who 
previously could read and who has not become blind." 
The writing center, definitely localized by some and be- 
lieved to be defective when there is difficulty in spelling 
and writing from dictation, they state has merely been 

1 Foerster, M. B., "A propos de la Pathologie de la Lecture et de 
L'Ecriture (Cecite Verbale Congenitale chez un debile). Revue New 
rologique, 1904, p. 200. 

2 Brissaud, M., "Cecite Verbale Congenitale." Revue Neurologique, 
1904, p. 101. 

3 Wernicke, C, "The Symptom-Complex of Aphasia: II. Dis- 
turbances of Written Language." Translated from " Die Deutsche 
Klinik" in "Diseases of the Nervous System", edited by Archibald 
Church, 1908. 

4 Ladd and Woodworth, "Elements of Physiological Psychology ". 
1911. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 85 

asserted, but "negative and mixed cases have sufficient 
weight to prevent a general acceptance of this localiza- 
tion." 

A number of writers have discussed the etiology of this 
defect, some endeavoring to prove the thesis that heredity 
is a cause. Thomas 1 tells of a child whose mother 
said that she and five other children all were unable to 
learn to read. Stephenson 2 has reported a case where 
three generations were affected, the maternal grand- 
mother, four of the mother's siblings, and the patient, a 
girl of fourteen. All the data were general reports, no 
one but the patient having personally been seen. Plate 3 
writes even more unsatisfactorily of four cases in one 
family; the only peculiarity in these instances consists 
apparently in inability to spell correctly. Several other 
similar types of cases are reported. In general the facts 
of heredity in all the published studies are extremely in- 
adequately known. 

One of the best articles from the standpoint of review 
and discussion of the literature is presented by McCready. 4 
He attempts to strengthen his thesis — " that there is 
distinct hereditary influence there can be little doubt" 
— by citing reported cases where the patient came of a 
neuropathic family. But without reconciliation to this 
view, he further adds as causes, defective intra-uterine 
development, injuries at birth, acute infectious diseases in 
infancy, and defective post-natal development. He gives 
a case which he calls congenital word-blindness, that was 

1 Thomas, C. J., "Congenital Word-Blindness and its Treatment." 
Ophthalmoscope, August, 1905. 

2 Stephenson, Sidney, " Six Cases of Congenital Word -Blindness Affect- 
ing Three Generations of one Family." Ophthalmoscope, August, 1907. 

3 Plate, Erich, " Vier Falle von Kongenitaler Wortblindheit in einer 
Familie." Muenchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, August, 1909. 

4 McCready, E. B., "Congenital Word-Blindness as a Cause of 
Backwardness in School Children." Pennsylvania Medical Journal, 
January, 1910. 



86 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

associated with stuttering. This is reported with only a 
meager psychological analysis and no record of tests. 

Witmer, 1 using the term, amnesia visualis verbalis, re- 
ports the case of a boy, fourteen years old, whose abilities 
and disabilities were as follows : (1) general intelligence 
equal to or above the average; (2) ability to express 
thoughts in spoken language normal; (3) memory for 
sounds good ; (4) visual memory for color, simple geomet- 
rical forms, and separate letters good ; (5) visual memory 
for words defective ; he cannot read ; (6) spells correctly 
only such words as can be spelled from component sounds. 
This boy was found to be suffering from severe diplopia, 
which Witmer believed had prevented the storing up of 
normal visual images. To this was due the inability to 
read and spell, rather than to congenital word-blindness. 

The discussion to which this case led illustrates the 
need for differential psychological as well as physiological 
diagnosis. McCready thought Witmer's explanation in- 
sufficient ; if the boy could draw well and possibly could 
recognize numerals (this latter point not having been 
specifically negated by Witmer), it would seem there was 
no general visual defect. In the analysis of the case, 
these specific facts are not covered nor are the tests given ; 
one is therefore left in final doubt regarding the problem. 

We have seen several instances where word images had 
not been accumulated, due to vision so defective as to 
preclude the possibility of acquiring clear visual pictures. 
We have not thought of interpreting such cases as due to 
an inherent disability for reading; the trouble is func- 
tional as far as the central nervous system is concerned, 
normal imagery having no chance for development. 

Reviewing the work thus far done, it may be said that 
the English school first used the term congenital word- 

1 Witmer, Lightner, "A Case of Chronic Bad Spelling, Amnesia 
Visualis Verbalist Psychological Clinic, August, 1907. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 87 

blindness and has offered most of the published cases. 
On the whole, from a psychological standpoint, these 
cases have been very inadequately studied and poorly 
analyzed ; no psychological tests have been used, and no 
standard for gauging general intelligence has been em- 
ployed. Tasks placed in the Binet scale at the four-year 
level of intelligence are cited as evidence of good mental- 
ity in the case of an eleven-year-old boy. Even visual 
memory has not often been tested. All together, the 
material is most unsatisfactory. Congenital defect of a 
visual word-center has not been proved or even recognized 
by neurologists. Indeed, the evidence in favor of a 
congenital defect localized in a definite visual center for 
words rests solely on the inability to read, an interpretation 
based on a supposed analogy to disabilities due to known 
cerebral lesions. 

When we consider the complexity of the reading pro- 
cess and the various phases of mental life that are involved 
therein, we are led to wonder whether the phrase "con- 
genital word-blindness " is anything more than a blanket 
term, easy to apply, but of little value either for under- 
standing the problem or for offering help in regard to 
training. If inability to read can be due to inadequate 
functioning of other mental processes, such as the synthe- 
sizing faculty we have already dwelt on, there is left no 
support for the alleged fact of narrowly localized cerebral 
insufficiency, though this does not mean that some central 
defect does not exist. The definite criteria formulated 
for diagnosis, particularly by McCready, cannot be re- 
garded as scientifically established. He states : " Given 
a child of school age, intelligent in other respects, not 
backward in other studies, who has difficulty in learning 
to read and who constantly makes mistakes, who has nor- 
mal vision or refraction corrected by glasses, there should 
be no hesitancy in attributing the trouble to congenital 



88 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

word-blindness." At the present stage of our knowledge 
there is no establishing by symptoms the fact of congenital 
localized neural lesions or defects analogous to acquired 
lesions, and our case-histories show that inability to learn 
to read may rest upon a basis of various defective powers. 
Though we agree with various authors in the fact itself, 
namely, that there sometimes does exist a special defect 
or disability in reading, yet in our own discussions, we have 
avoided the use of the term word-blindness. At the pres- 
ent time its use is questionable and much more experi- 
mentation is necessary in this field before other defects 
can be ruled out as possible explanations of disability for 
reading, alexia. In any case, there is no particular value 
in the term congenital word-blindness. What is needed 
in every case is study of all mental processes, careful, 
thorough, and of as wide a range as possible, with thought- 
ful analysis of the results — analysis which shall reveal 
not only the defective processes, but also the capacities 
that may be used as compensatory in training. 

SPELLING 

The problems of spelling will be only briefly discussed, 
for it is quite generally recognized that individuals differ 
widely in their ability to master this subject. All writers 
on the question* have agreed that many persons well 
educated are unable to spell correctly. The studies of 
Rice l lead to the conclusion that the amount of time de- 
voted to the teaching of spelling and the methods used 
have little correlation with the results achieved. He 
found that in various school systems the periods given 
for teaching spelling vary greatly, but that the results 
bear no relationship to this factor of time and drill. 
Methods of teaching used in this field are as yet little deter- 

1 Bice, J. M., "The Futility of the Spelling Grind." The Forum, 
Vol. 23, 1897. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 89 

mined by any psychological laws. Lay * and Abbott and 
Kuhlmann 2 have studied experimentally the psychologi- 
cal elements involved in spelling, in an effort to find the 
success that follows auditory presentation of words as 
compared with visual, and to discover the differences 
when these processes are accompanied by soft and loud 
speaking and other motor reactions, such as the movement 
of the hand in writing the word. Upon the whole, all 
studies emphasize the fact that discrimination of sound 
and association of visual form with the sound of the word 
are main elements in spelling. 

In our own work we have never concerned ourselves 
much with any defect for spelling as such, that is, where 
no other difficulties in learning were found. This attitude 
has been adopted because of the fact before stated, 
namely, that many intelligent and well-educated people 
remain all their lives poor spellers. However, we have 
noted that poor spelling is often correlated with poor 
reading ability and at times with other disabilities in 
language. 

SPOKEN LANGUAGE 

The development of ability to use language as a medium 
of expression has been discussed by numerous writers. 
Kirkpatrick 3 believes that speech is an expressive in- 
stinct which owes its origin to other instincts. The desire 
to express, to make wants known, begins with gesture and 
various cries; the latter, really vocal manipulations, 
develop into words through imitation coupled with the 
play instinct and encouraged by approval. First mere 
sounds* are made, then follows the period of "word- 

1 Lay, "Studien und Versuche liber die Erlernung der Orthographic ", 
1908. 

2 Abbott and Kuhlmann, "On the Analysis of the Memory 
Consciousness." Psychological Review, Monograph Supplement XI, 
1909. 

3 Kirkpatrick, E. A., "Fundamentals of Child Study ", 1911. 



90 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

learning" and later the sentence-making stage. Pro- 
nunciation is a matter of auditory perception coupled 
with memory and requiring control of voluntary muscula- 
ture. 1 

Defect in ability to use language for purposes of self- 
expression is evidenced by poor vocabulary, wrong use of 
words, and incoherent statements as well as by special 
tests. The old notion that if one understood a fact or 
had an idea he could readily express it, is not altogether 
true. Sometimes one feels certain that there is an under- 
standing, a comprehension, a thought, but that the ex- 
pression of it is totally inadequate. 

The term congenital word-deafness, referring to inability 
to understand and use spoken language, is frequently 
used, but few cases can be found in the literature. The 
condition is not often met and we have never studied a 
case in our own clinic. 

Town 2 presents the only thoroughly studied case 
we find ; that of a boy eight years old whose condition, 
however, was probably not congenital, but dated as early 
in life as the first week, when he had a serious illness ac- 
companied by spasms which left him partially paralyzed 
on the left side. The paralysis disappeared during in- 
fancy. At sixteen months he contracted measles, which 
was followed by chorea, and at three years an attack of 

1 It is obvious that there may be extreme disabilities for language 
dependent upon brain lesions or brain defects, just as there may be 
cerebral motor paralyses. Cases of the type which Broadbent ("Cere- 
bral Mechanism of Speech and Thought", Medico Chirurgical Trans- 
actions, Volume 55, February, 1872) first reported, where there was 
word-blindness with motor aphasia, have not been dealt with in this 
book. In our clinic we have seen a number of instances where it was 
plain that language disability was altogether disproportionate to the 
general intelligence ; for instance, a young boy totally unable to speak 
very evidently understood directions given through signs. Although 
these are educational problems to some extent, they are so primarily 
neurological that they seem not in place in this volume. 

2 Town, Clara Harrison, *' Congenital Aphasia.'' The Psychological 
Clinic, November, 1911. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 91 

scarlet fever left an otitis media. At the time of the ex- 
amination he was well nourished and showed no lack of 
coordination in either eye or hand movements. He could 
not understand or use language normally, nevertheless he 
gave no evidence of general mental defect. He made his 
wants known by means of gestures and comprehended di- 
rections given him by signs. He understood the uses of ob- 
jects, gave evidence of retentive memory, was interested in 
finding the causes of events, and quick to perceive visual 
stimuli of all kinds. Nor was he deaf to noises. He 
could repeat words uttered in an ordinary tone, not 
correctly, but in a way that approximated the original. 
He could name about thirty-six objects or their pictures 
and used voluntarily about twenty-four words, having 
in all a vocabulary of at least sixty words. On the other 
hand, he apparently understood only about twelve very 
simple words when spoken. He heard other words, as 
was proven by the fact that he would repeat them, but 
he did not understand them, as was shown by his failure 
to comply with requests or point out objects. On the 
Binet tests which were given him, he passed all the tests 
up to and including those for children of six years which 
did not require the understanding of language, failing in 
all those whose meaning could not be conveyed by gestures. 
Good visual perception of form was shown in his handling 
of the form-board test, which was done accurately and 
without hesitation. Color discrimination was good, and 
he showed some initiative in cutting from paper simple 
figures without aid or suggestion. The special diagnosis 
reached was that the boy was suffering from mental de- 
fect limited to the language field and independent of 
any other mental deficiency. The second case reported 
by Doctor Town is less thoroughly studied and is less 
convincing. In this instance, also, the child had suffered 
from otitis media. 



92 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

In cases of this type every effort in determining etiology 
should be made to rule out abnormal conditions of the 
auditory apparatus as possible cause of ordinary auditory 
images not being stored. (This would make a situation 
similar to non-acquirement of normal visual impressions 
on account of defective eyesight.) An essential pecu- 
liarity in regard to this problem is that tests proving hear- 
ing normal at the time of examination by no means show 
that in the past there was no auditory defect, such as 
would be caused by an inflammatory process, notably 
otitis media. Lack of consideration of this important 
point reduces the value of the cases of "word-deafness" 
reported by Thomas 1 and McCall, 2 neither of whom gives 
developmental history to rule out any prior difficulty with 
the auditory apparatus. Also, curiously enough, both of 
these instances are given without any detailed study of 
the facts of general intelligence. 

CASE STUDIES OF DEFECT IN LANGUAGE ABILITY 

The examples given cover disability in learning to read 
and in use of language, incidentally including difficulties 
with spelling as they are correlated with other language 
defects. 

Case 14. This case is presented as illustrating defect 
in special mental processes leading to disability for read- 
ing. Here we find a marked deficiency in auditory powers, 
shown by poor auditory memory and defective discrimi- 
nation of sound. In marked contradistinction, other 
mental traits are normal or above normal. 

Adolph J., 15^ years old, was sent to us as a behavior 
case, but proved to be much more an educational problem. 

1 Thomas, C. J., "Congenital Word-Blindness and Its Treatment." 
Ophthalmoscope, August, 1905. 

2 McCall, Eva, "Two Cases of Congenital Aphasia in Children.". 
British Medical Journal, May, 1911. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 93 

We found him a most interesting study. In many ways 
the boy was exceedingly capable. He was American 
born and he had never been truant, yet after attending 
schools, both public and private, from his sixth year to 
his fifteenth, he was only in fifth grade. Still, as 
seen in the laboratory, he showed a splendid attitude 
toward mental tasks ; he was greatly interested in all the 
tests and made an effort to do well. On the whole, he 
showed very good powers of attention and worked per- 
sistently with no evidence of fatigue. His emotions 
seemed altogether normal, both as seen in his reactions 
during the test work and as evidenced by his own and his 
mother's story. 

Reading, no matter how simple the passage, occasioned 
him much difficulty. He made errors in the reading of 
very simple words, for example he called "often" "after", 
"about" was pronounced as "along." He failed ab- 
solutely on such words as "autumn", "winds", 
"frightened." Indeed, he never seemed certain of any 
words except the simplest, such as "the", "and", and 
other common monosyllables. Speaking of his reading, 
he said, "The kids at school would always laugh at me. 
I got so I wouldn't read at all. Sure, my teachers tried 
to help me, but it seemed like I couldn't pick it up." 
He had never read a book, could not read the newspapers, 
and, in consequence, was very poorly informed in spite 
of his good ability in many directions. 

Turning to other school work, we found that the boy 
had no difficulty with arithmetic. He had had little 
opportunity of learning upper grade work, but was 
familiar with the fundamental processes and did quite 
well all tests involving money and its use, and also 
problems in arithmetic. On the other hand, spelling was 
exceedingly poor ; we found that the boy could not depend 
upon the sound of words at all; these very evidently 



94 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

meant nothing to him. He himself said he had to learn 
his spelling entirely by "the looks of words." He eyed 
quite critically the word "gril" intended for "girl", and 
he finally decided that it looked all right. After writing 
the word "print" for "printer ", he wanted to know if 
that really was "printer" or "painter ", he thought he 
might have confused the two; he had no sense of the 
phonetic values. 

Other test results brought out some very interesting 
features. All construction tests were done well, showing 
very good perception of form and form relationships. 
The method employed was planful and showed the boy 
to be rather deliberate and thoughtful in the solving of 
problems of this kind. As evidenced by several other 
tests, designed for the purpose, we found his perception 
of form and the discrimination of one form from another 
to be quite normal. Visual perceptions were accurate and 
rapid. Allowed to look at a picture for ten seconds, the 
boy gave details accurately, having noticed many of the 
minor points. Powers of analysis and mental representa- 
tion were found to be distinctly good, tests in these fields 
being done very rapidly and with ease. General powers 
of apperception were extremely good. This was shown 
both on special tests for apperception and by his courtesy 
and other good general social behavior. The boy was ex- 
ceedingly keen and quick in grasping the gist of a situation, 
in making inferences, and in the understanding of his own 
peculiar handicaps. Indeed, this characteristic and his 
good reasoning ability were very striking. 

He demonstrated ability to analyze and reason, not only 
with concrete problems presented him, but in other fields. 
His quickness in replying to the common-sense tests of 
the Binet series, his keen sense of humor in the incon- 
gruities test, his good ability in arithmetic problems, all 
corroborated this. He was critical of his own perform- 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 95 

ances, noting for himself any errors which he made and 
correcting them. Thus, after completing the continuous 
subtraction test, he said, "I made a mistake in that", 
and proceeded to correct his errors. In the description of 
pictures his excellent interpretations indicated splendid 
powers of imagination. His association processes were 
well controlled ; verbal associations were extremely rapid. 
He showed normal learning ability in the forming of 
associations between arbitrary symbols. Psychomotor 
control was not particularly good, the boy being quite 
accurate, but slow in tests for this. 

The study of the memory processes presented several 
points of great interest. Visual memory was at least 
normal both for rote and for logical material, but in the 
auditory field there were striking defects. In spite of 
his exceedingly good powers in other ways, this boy 
found the greatest difficulty in reproducing five numerals 
given him auditorily. He succeeded only once in twelve 
trials. This is a record much below the normal for his 
age; a five-place number should be readily reproduced 
by an eight-year-old child. In the passage for logical 
memory, presented to him auditorily, he did very well, 
but here he was aided by the ideas which he reproduced, 
as well as by the ability to transpose the auditory passage 
into visual terms. There were numerous verbal inaccura- 
cies, and the English employed was exceedingly poor. 
Memory for syllables, given auditorily, likewise was much 
below normal; indeed, there were many evidences that 
this boy had a distinct defect in the auditory field. His 
enunciation was extremely faulty, though his vocabulary 
showed a fairly wide range. He was unable to reproduce 
catch sentences given him, such as "Thomas Theophilus 
Thinkum Thunkum ", or "Round the rough and rugged 
rock the ragged rascal ran ", even though these were 
repeated to him three times or more, He never succeeded 



96 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

in saying the word "Constantinople." It was evident 
that he did not hear all the sounds, for certain syllables 
were slurred over in every trial. In reciting a verse of 
"America", he enunciated many words poorly and used 
some incorrectly, for example, "Of Thee I See." He 
repeated this when the verse was said for him with the 
words very clearly enunciated. (It should be added here 
that physical examination showed no defect in hearing.) 

In the light of the results on these tests, it is not so 
difficult to understand why this boy has been unable to 
learn to read. No doubt the clue is to be found in his 
defective auditory powers. His auditory perceptions are 
exceedingly faulty, and his auditory memory is very poor. 
Much of the help which comes consciously and uncon- 
sciously from the auditory field was lost to this boy. 
Remembering that both association of sounds with visual 
stimuli and auditory memory are elements in the reading 
process, there is no reason to doubt that defects in these 
functions may cause inability to learn to read. 

Nothing had ever been done to help this boy overcome 
his handicap by adapting methods to his needs. Surely, 
since he can get certain sounds correctly and can speak 
so that he can be understood, even though his enunciation 
is poor, his auditory powers could have been improved by 
training. This would seem a justifiable deduction, but 
it does not mean that this could be done without special 
effort. To have used more extensively his naturally good 
visual powers might also have been a vast help. 

It is quite clear how much this boy's time had been 
misused in the school, for with his very good ability in 
so many directions he could have progressed much more 
rapidly. To have spent nine years in the first five grades 
and even then not have gained ability to read simple 
passages, has been a great wrong. His failure was not 
to be explained by any physical handicap ; though small, 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 97 

he was in good physical condition, nor were facts of 
heredity and developmental and environmental history 
significant. 

The educational failure, in this case, has distinct re- 
lationship to the boy's delinquencies. He was reported 
as earlier mischievous in school, and, because of annoying 
girls, was suspended. Later, when working, he engaged 
in petty stealing, and finally, after dissatisfaction with 
his work, ran away from home. 

Case 15. In contrast to the preceding case is this 
example of inability to learn to read correlated with ex- 
treme defect in the visual field, the auditory powers being 
quite normal. 

James M., fifteen years old, was brought us by his 
parents as an educational problem. They said that he 
had never learned anything in school, that his teachers 
had tried to help him, unsuccessfully, and the parents had 
reached the conclusion that "he is just good for nothing 
and won't ever do anything in school." 
j Examination for ability in the ordinary school subjects 
showed that the boy's retardation was due to his inability 
to read. Number work was well done for the fifth grade 
which he had reached, and geographical knowledge was 
quite accurate, but it was seen at once that reading was 
the stumbling block. The word "cylinder" was pro- 
nounced "candle", "crib" was read as "club", "tunnel" 
as "turn." These were typical errors made throughout a 
fairly simple passage. James told us that he could not 
master reading ; that he had never read a book, although 
he had enjoyed stories read to him by his mother. 

Mental tests proved this boy to be exceedingly capable 
in some directions. He did problems involving the use 
of concrete material in a thoroughly planful manner, 
solving them quite rapidly. He showed good psychomotor 
control. Tests requiring powers of mental representation 



98 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

and analysis were done readily. The memory tests for 
logical material were likewise done quite well, as far as 
general results went, but certain peculiarities were, noted. 
In the test where a passage is presented by auditory means, 
that is, where it was read to him, he reproduced ten of the 
twelve ideas with fair verbal accuracy and almost in 
correct order. On the other hand, when he himself read 
a passage, he read it slowly and with much trouble, 
later reproducing eighteen of the twenty ideas, but with 
many changes in logical sequence. When the reproduc- 
tion was completed, the boy himself said, " I know part of 
it was wrong, it didn't sound right," after which he ex- 
plained the method he had used. He stated, " I read each 
line over and then said it to myself ", for, he explained, 
he was unable to learn anything which he did not first 
hear. 

The striking defect in powers of visualizing was quite 
apparent in another test for visual memory. Shown the 
two geometrical Binet figures for ten seconds and then 
asked to draw what he had seen, the boy made errors in 
both. After a second exposure he reproduced the figures 
correctly. In explanation of this he very clearly stated 
that he had been unable to visualize the figures, but had 
described the forms to himself, as it were, and followed his 
own description. It was interesting to note that in the 
first reproduction, where errors were made, this was due 
to the faulty description to himself of what he had seen. 
Thus, he said to himself, "There are three squares con- 
nected together with the two outside ones turned opposite 
each other. The second time I said to myself, the middle 
square had one side out." In each instance the reproduc- 
tion which he drew corresponded to his unspoken verbal 
description. 

If we try to explain this boy's disability in reading, we 
should say, in the light of the results on tests, that it is 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 99 

due to poor visual powers. He himself recognized the 
fact that he had to learn most things through sound. 
He said, in regard to spelling, in which he was fairly accu- 
rate, " I can learn to spell words if some one spells them out 
to me or if I spell them out to myself. I have to hear the 
sound of the words." This corroborates, of course, what 
the boy previously said when reproducing the memory 
passage given him visually. Clearly, visual material 
which cannot be recast into auditory form, or summarized 
in terms of ideas, is hard for this boy to control. In 
reading, naturally, it would be most difficult to convert 
all the pictures of various words into other than visual 
terms, hence the boy's great failure in this whole field. It 
is very certain that this case could not be used as argument 
that trouble in learning to read even when caused by visual 
difficulties is due to a defect in the hypothetical visual 
word-center. 

What might have been done for this lad had his trouble 
been understood years earlier than it was, is difficult to 
know now, but there is not the slightest doubt that without 
recognition of his defect in visual memory and powers of 
visualization, he could not be properly taught. On the 
other hand, with an effort made to develop powers of 
visualizing and to adapt methods to meet his particular 
difficulties, he might have made much greater headway. 
From the fact that he had learned to read shorter words, 
those more commonly met, it is evident that the visual 
powers, while doubtless much below normal, must exist 
to some extent, and individual training probably could 
have increased them enormously. By good phonetic 
drill, associating the sound of letters and groups of letters 
with the visual form, the number of words which would 
have to be remembered as visual wholes would have been 
gradually decreased, and a tool given whereby the boy 
might have helped himself to a considerable extent. His 



100 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

naturally good auditory powers had not been as greatly 
used in connection with reading as they might have been. 
It is evident that this boy had not been taught reading 
by the phonetic methods which at the present time are 
common. In any case, no doubt, he would have needed 
individual help in order to progress at a normal rate in 
reading. 

No physical trouble which could be considered a factor 
was found ; there were no sensory defects. The boy was 
in rather poor general condition. He had grown rapidly 
and was somewhat under weight for his height. There was 
complaint of sick headaches earlier, but not for about 
two years previous to our seeing him. The intelligent 
mother could give no facts concerning heredity or develop- 
mental history that were significant. 

James' very good ability in many ways had not served 
to make his educational advance normal. He was at 
least five years retarded in school, for which he had ac- 
quired a dislike; he had been truant to a moderate 
extent, extremely disobedient at home, and had once 
run away, but returned the following day of his own 
accord. His retardation in school had led to friction 
between the boy and the parents, who, though they 
were most anxious to give him a good education, had 
shown themselves quite helpless in the matter of how 
this was to be done. 

Case 16. The next problem presented is of great in- 
terest, because the inability to master reading is so clear 
and definite, though psychological tests reveal little in 
explanation. The various mental processes, each tested 
separately, seem quite normal. In the light of this fact 
we are led to wonder whether in reading there is not in- 
volved some subtle synthetic process, which, at the pres- 
ent time, we have no means of studying, but defects of 
which, nevertheless, are of extreme significance. This 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 101 

case is presented without any pretense of solving the 
problem definitely. It affords a striking commentary on 
the limitations of our present knowledge. This does not 
militate, however, against the validity of finding special 
defect, nor against appreciation of its practical impor- 
tance. 

Walter Z. is a boy whom we have seen on numerous 
occasions, and whom we have come to know quite well. 
When first brought to the laboratory he was just eleven 
years old, and during the five years that have since elapsed, 
we have followed his career with much interest. When 
we first knew Walter, we found that he was unable to 
read a single word of English. The parents were foreign 
born, though the boy was born in the United States. 
Walter attended a foreign speaking school before we knew 
him, but soon after this he was sent to the Parental School, 
to which truants are committed. There he was kept for 
nine months, and some special attention was given him. 
After this long period we found, on reexamination, that 
he had learned absolutely nothing in reading. He told 
us, with very evident sincerity, how eager he was to learn 
to read. He was conscious of his disability in this direc- 
tion and had a thorough appreciation of the handicap 
that it was. He expressed a great desire to attend public 
school in order that he might try to make some headway 
in reading. During a later period of a few weeks, when 
we had this boy under observation, an effort was made 
to teach him the reading of very simple words, but it 
proved a failure. We found that when the boy was 
taught to recognize one simple word, for example "not", 
he was able to identify this same word whenever it occurred 
on the page, but he never succeeded in remembering more 
than one or two words at a time, or in putting them to- 
gether so that he could read a full sentence. The net 
result of his intensive training was the ability to recognize 



102 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

a few simple words. 1 In testing his writing and spelling, 
we found that he was able to write very well from the 
standpoint of legibility and letter formation, but he never 
succeeded in mastering spelling. At the age of fourteen 
he could not spell the word "one" or "school", and he 
had learned to write his own name only with the greatest 
difficulty. 

Because of his inability to profit by all the effort that 
both he and his teachers made, we studied this boy's 
mental processes with much care. He did many things 
exceedingly well, among them tasks involving functions 
which one would believe very vital in the reading process 
itself. He has very good visual powers ; not only is his 
visual memory quite normal, but he has a distinct gift 
for drawing, a talent which he showed early. Although 
he has never had any special instruction, he has always 
shown great love for this form of art and produces drawings 
which are remarkable for an untrained boy. His hand- 
work — basketry and woodwork — is likewise very well 
done. 

His memory powers for logical material, presented in 
either auditory or visual form, were normal too, and audi- 
tory rote memory tests conformed to norms for his age. 
Simple performances involving analysis and mental rep- 
resentation were correctly solved, but when these same 
processes were required in complex situations, the boy 
did poorly. Although he remembered readily and re- 
combined nine arbitrary symbols, each representing a 
letter, he was unable to perform a code test where exactly 
the same power is required, except that there are twenty- 
six symbols to recombine. 

Walter made a very good record on all construction 

1 Though at the time we were studying this case the point did not 
occur to us, we have since wondered what part recognition memory 
plays in learning to read. An experimental investigation of this prob- 
lem might be well worth while. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 103 

tests; he was able to follow directions very well, re- 
membering the various steps in a fairly long process. 
When last studied, we found the boy still graded normal 
by Binet tests, where he failed only in giving definitions 
of abstract terms. He showed normal control of verbal 
associations and no difficulty either in comprehension 
or use of language. We found that he perceived and dis- 
criminated form readily and that he could learn rapidly to 
associate one arbitrary symbol with another. 

Physically, although poorly developed for his age, 
Walter was quite well nourished and had no sensory defects 
of any kind. Heredity, so far as we were able to learn, 
was negative. Nor was there anything of significance 
in the developmental history. Environmental conditions 
were unsatisfactory, inasmuch as the father was alcoholic, 
and the family poor ; the home offered little in the way of 
mental satisfactions. ^ < 

It does not require much imagination to realize the 
relationship between this boy's disabilities and his school 
and later career. At twelve years of age he was still in 
the first grade. At fourteen years he had been advanced 
to the second grade in an effort to encourage him, and a 
kind teacher who was interested in the boy was making an 
effort to aid him by special instruction, but by the ordinary 
school methods. His naturally good ability in other 
directions was being called into play very little, nor was 
he receiving any instruction along those lines wherein he 
might have profited greatly. From both points of view 
he was severely handicapped. No means were being 
found to help him at the point of his weakness, nor was he 
being given opportunities to develop his special talents. 
He was not even being taught a trade. He was merely 
plodding along in the ordinary schoolroom with well-inten- 
tioned teachers who were devoting special time to him, 
but in ways which offered little chance of success. 



104 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

No doubt it would require much ingenuity to devise 
special methods for training this lad in reading and spell- 
ing, but from such an effort more knowledge of experi- 
mental pedagogy might be acquired, it would seem, than 
can be gained from many courses offered in universities. 
To allow the boy to progress as rapidly as he might in 
other subjects would necessitate a more flexible school sys- 
tem than we now have, but no case could present a clearer 
illustration of the need for just this kind of flexibility. 

The dire social effects of an irrational and clumsy school 
system could hardly be found more clearly illustrated than 
in this case. Walter was first brought into court for run- 
ning away from home and for truancy. A short time later 
he was sent to the Parental School ; after his release from 
there, the boy was further truant, and was brought into 
court when he was found begging on the streets. From 
the boy's own account, he was virtually driven to this 
because he could not earn a livelihood in any legitimate 
way. When a little over fourteen he left school, utterly 
unprepared to meet the world or to find his place in 
our economic system. He had no trade training. His 
talent for drawing had not been developed. He could 
perhaps have been an errand boy had his inability to read 
not practically precluded this. His family was poor, his 
father out of work, and the children hungry, and with a 
really fine spirit the boy turned to begging, as the only 
means of contributing to the family support that he could 
think of. When last we heard of him, he was earn- 
ing a small amount by scrubbing floors and dusting in a 
factory where there was little likelihood of his advancing 
to any more lucrative form of employment. Walter has 
been a victim of his own innate defects, but also of society's 
methods of dealing with some of its hampered members. 

Case 17. In order to emphasize the problem presented 
in the previous illustration, another instance is cited, very 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 105 

similar in general characteristics, but where the details 
vary somewhat. Here, again, a boy is hampered with 
special disability in reading most difficult to account for 
on the basis of such tests as seem to have a relationship to 
the factors in reading. 

Harold N., eleven years old, we learned to know quite 
well through his having remained for a long period await- 
ing adjustment of difficult family conditions. We were 
asked to see this boy because he was found to be exceed- 
ingly retarded in school. He has been repeatedly studied 
at intervals during two years. 

He is a big, strong, well nourished lad, very pleasant, 
responsive, and eager to cooperate. He has never been a 
delinquent and now presents only, as far as we are con- 
cerned, an exceedingly interesting educational problem. 
Later the vocational aspects of his case will have to be 
considered. He makes a very favorable impression upon 
one; he talks well; is fairly well informed, considering 
his age and advantages; evidently remembers what he 
hears and sees; is anxious to acquire an education, and 
shows in general a very normal, boyish attitude toward 
the world. 

In spite of this, Harold has been an out-and-out school 
failure. When originally seen he could not read a first- 
grade passage. He recognized only a few very simple 
words, such as "am" and "boy." As for writing words 
from dictation, we soon discovered the boy became greatly 
confused, though he made every effort to succeed. He 
volunteered to write "man", making it "nam", and the 
word "and", writing it "anj", but he wrote correctly the 
words "run" and "can." These four words composed his 
entire writing vocabulary, and these had been acquired, 
as he himself acknowledged, because his teacher had made 
him write them hundreds of times. A few days later the 
alphabet was written for him, and he was asked to write 



106 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

certain words that were spelled out to him, his task being 
to find the individual letters in the alphabet and to copy 
them. He wrote " 1 " for " t " and " j " f or " y." (As will 
be seen later, this boy had no visual difficulties.) He 
read figures correctly. 

Seen six months later, having attended school during 
the intervening period, he still was unable to read a first- 
grade passage. He made such errors as the following : 
he called the word "in" "with"; confused the words 
"am" and "can." At that time he could not write 
any sentence, either from dictation or of his own inven- 
tion. He could write just four words besides his name. 
A month later, during which time intensive individual 
help was given him, he did no better than before; 
indeed, he confused words which were being taught him 
with the few words that he had previously known. It 
should be added, however, that while given individual 
instruction by a very conscientious teacher, no specially 
adapted method was used. An effort was made to teach 
him by the usual means employed in teaching children 
who have no special disability. 

For number work, we are not sure that there was any 
innate defect. Because of his having remained so long 
in the first grade he had had very little training in this 
direction, but concrete problems he did quite well; 
he added simple number combinations, added money 
correctly, solved very simple problems, such as, If nine 
apples are divided among three children, how many 
would each receive? But he could not tell abstractly 
one third of nine. We judged, on the basis of our test 
work, that Harold could learn numbers fairly readily if 
he had the opportunity of doing so. It is clear that his 
number ability, at least, is very far ahead of his reading 
ability. 

This boy did exceedingly well on tests for general in- 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 107 

telligence, such as the Binet tests. Here he graded above 
his age. He did the Binet test for visual memory very 
well; very quickly detected the Binet language incon- 
gruities and gave shrewd and relevant answers in the 
Binet common-sense tests. We found normal powers of 
apperception, both through special testing and judging 
by his conversation. He also demonstrated normal con- 
trol of verbal associations and also normal ability 
to form such new associations as are required in the arbi- 
trary learning test. 

Harold proved on construction tests to be a rather 
thoughtful, deliberate boy, solving problems of this 
sort in a logical manner, with some trial and error, and 
profiting very quickly by his own experience. He did not 
repeat his errors and having once reached a solution, he 
remembered it and was able to solve the same problem on 
second trial with a very great gain in speed and accuracy. 
His powers of analysis and mental representation, as 
judged by our usual tests, were quite good. As for 
memory tests, we found immediate memory to be very 
good ; memory span for rote material was just about what 
is expected at his age, neither better nor worse ; memory 
for logical material read to him was not particularly 
good — he gave seven items out of a possible twelve ; 
remote memory for this type of material was almost as 
good as immediate, for after forty-eight hours he repro- 
duced six of the twelve items. It should be added that 
these represented the main ideas of the passage. On the 
Aussage, or testimony test, he gave a full coherent account, 
showing good and rapid perceptions, good powers of inter- 
pretation, and good memory. This last was further 
shown when, one year later, without having seen the 
picture again, he gave a detailed, accurate description. 

He had great skill in handwork, showing more than 
average ability in this direction; his eye for line and 



108 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

measurement was accurate, and he evidenced quite a 
little artistic feeling for form. His manual training teacher 
considered him exceedingly capable in this work, saying 
the boy showed initiative and ability to plan. His success 
in this work and on tests indicated that powers of per- 
ception were in these fields unusually good. 

What can we find peculiar in the mental processes to 
account for the boy's inability to learn to spell and to 
read? Studied separately, there is no difficulty or 
peculiarity or lack of functioning of any of the mental 
processes tested. Visual and auditory powers seem 
normal ; in memory tests he reaches the norm for his age ; 
association tests give no evidence of irregularity; there 
is no defect for language. Here again, as in the preceding 
case, one would like to know more about the general facts 
of recognition memory as involved in the reading process. 

Nor was there any other explanation found. The boy 
has always been strong. He has been examined by various 
specialists, and the physical conditions can be ruled out 
as being negative. We know the heredity and family 
history quite well in this case, and though there is much of 
interest, there is nothing that is directly significant 
in relation to the boy's disability. In spite of poor home 
conditions, Harold has attended school regularly and has 
had the same educational advantages that fall to the lot 
of most city boys. 

Harold is still too young for us to appreciate all the 
social consequences that may arise as a result of his dis- 
abilities. He has as yet shown no delinquent tendencies, 
and placed on a farm where his defects are not strikingly 
apparent, he has been happy and has gotten along very 
well. His particular handicaps should be remembered, 
however, in all future efforts in his behalf. 

Case 18. To show how impossible it is to analyze and 
explain reading defect if insufficient study is given, we 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 109 

cite the following instance in which the problem as 
presented to us was merely to determine whether the 
individual was normal mentally or feeble-minded. Un- 
like the previous illustrations, we have here insufficient 
data for ruling out the several possible explanatory factors. 

Richard T., 16| years old, had only reached the fourth 
grade of the public school when he left at fourteen years. 
He was considered a school failure, and because of this a 
number of people regarded him as being subnormal. 

When he was tested for mentality, we wondered why 
he should be accounted so dull, for he did many things 
very well. We soon saw that the boy had a special dis- 
ability for reading. He did performance tests normally, 
made a good record on tests for mental representation and 
analysis, had a normal record on tests for apperception, 
and while he had not had training in arithmetic above the 
fourth grade, he could add, subtract, and multiply. He 
had no difficulty in handling money or in solving simple 
problems involving money. On the other hand, his read- 
ing was exceedingly poor. He failed on all but the sim- 
plest words, and even these were read in a very hesitating 
manner, with much uncertainty. He himself told us that 
he had always had a great deal of trouble in school on 
account of his reading. From the results on tests given 
him, we were sure that the boy could not be regarded as 
anything other than normal in general ability, but we 
were unable to study his mental processes in sufficient 
detail to find out the explanation of his disability, though 
the fact that it existed was quite clear. 

He was an extreme delinquent, having been in court 
numerous times for truancy, for stealing, and for not 
working. He was American born, but of foreign parent- 
age. The family was poor ; he was the only one of six 
children who had caused any trouble ; all of the others had 
good school records ; a sister of twelve was in the seventh 



110 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

grade. The father was said to have had fair intelligence 
and some education. The mother seemed on the whole 
quite dull, but she had had very poor educational oppor- 
tunities. 

How large a factor his special defect was in his delin- 
quency we cannot say with surety, but, beyond doubt, it 
played quite a part; indeed, we are inclined to believe 
that it was a matter of very great consequence, since he 
early became a truant. School offered him no satis- 
factions, and when he left, at fourteen, he had little prep- 
aration for any particular vocation. We know that he 
had positions requiring practically no skill ; for a time he 
worked with a peddler. The father had died when the 
boy was about fourteen, and there was poverty and poor 
parental control, and very little in the way of home in- 
terests. Had the boy been trained for some vocation 
which interested him it is quite conceivable that his whole 
career might have been very different. 

Case 19. The following case illustrates defects in 
general language ability and the serious consequences that 
arise therefrom. 

Thomas S., 15 years old, was in a room for subnormal 
children when we first knew him and had been held there 
for the past several years. He was tested on two different 
occasions, because when first seen he was apprehensive, 
ill at ease, and hence unable to do his best. Taking into 
consideration the boy's attitude and judging him by his 
best efforts, we found he did fairly well on tests for general 
ability. He himself told us, and testing corroborated it, 
that he was held in the subnormal room because of his 
inability to, progress in reading. He could read only the 
most familiar monosyllables, he failed on all longer words 
and even on short ones when they were in the least un- 
familiar. Nor was his achievement in writing much 
better. He wrote legibly, but could spell only very few 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 111 

words. He could add, subtract, and multiply, not a poor 
record considering that his opportunities for acquiring 
knowledge in arithmetic had been extremely limited. 

On performance tests the boy did very well. All 
construction tests were solved correctly ; good powers of 
motor control were shown; he succeeded where analysis 
and mental representation were demanded; he made a 
perfect record on the substitution learning test ; and suc- 
ceeded very well on tests for memory, so far as repetition 
of ideas was concerned. The notable feature here was the 
fact that although he could give a good reproduction of 
the thought of the passage read to him, yet his power of 
expressing the ideas was decidedly limited. 

It was in the field of language that this boy's special 
disability lay. He could not express himself with force or 
accuracy ; his choice of English was poor, even considering 
his home disadvantages. His parents were German, and 
their native language was spoken in the home. That the 
boy did not speak grammatically was perhaps not of any 
significance, but much more striking was it that he could 
not write, speak, or read German any better than English. 

When the tests were analyzed, it was seen that this boy 
had normal powers of perception, both for form and rela- 
tionships of form ; he reasoned quite well, at least in regard 
to situations presented concretely; apperceptions and 
memory were normal. On the other hand, the opposites 
test, which involves control of association of words, was 
performed very poorly and corroborated the findings in 
regard to other language factors. Thus, it can be seen 
that inability to learn to read was due, very likely, to a 
defect for language in general. No defect in visual or 
auditory fields was shown, nor in powers of forming new 
associations, that is, in actual learning capacity. 

Physical factors could be ruled out, since examination 
showed the boy to be unusually strong for his age, with 



112 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

no sensory defects. Heredity and developmental condi- 
tions were likewise negative. Because of his one disability, 
regardless of what he could do in other tasks, the boy 
had been kept in the subnormal room. He himself said, 
"When I was in that room I could never get out and get 
pushed up. I know my numbers, and everything, ex- 
cepting reading. Everything I did in woodwork was good, 
I made baskets and everything, but because I could not 
read I was kept down with the dippy ones." In spite of 
having been regarded by the school authorities as a mental 
defective, we could not so classify him in the light of 
results on tests, nor, indeed, according to his social re- 
actions. 

We note that when he left school shortly after our study 
of him, he was quite successful vocationally. Fortunately, 
his work was of such a character that his disability did not 
handicap him; he became a good wage earner, and so 
far as we know now, five years after our first knowledge 
of this boy, he has never again been delinquent in any way. 

One interesting feature was found when the boy came to 
visit us, after having left school for several months. He 
had endeavored by himself to make some headway in 
reading and spelling, with greater success than had been 
accomplished in the school. It is true his achievement 
was very limited, he could not read all the words of a first- 
grade passage, but he said that by dint of much persever- 
ance he had added some few words to his reading vocabu- 
lary. Certain it is that the school had been an utter 
failure in discovering the defect which was the basis of 
his lack of progress, and his own clumsy efforts were suc- 
ceeding quite as well, if not better, than the methods used 
in school. 

Case 20. Another example of general language dis- 
ability is here presented. 

Rupert N., sixteen years when first seen, was found at 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 113 

once to be most peculiar. He was a great problem from 
the standpoint of conduct when we first became acquainted 
with him, and previously he had been an educational 
problem as well. Every one who came in contact with 
the boy felt him to be a peculiar, dull, loutish fellow. He 
made the most unfavorable impression, even in the court- 
room, because of his slouchiness and his confused and 
almost incoherent statements. 

We soon found that very little reliance could be put 
upon any statements made by the boy himself. He was 
contradictory in what he said, and at all times seemed un- 
able to give a clear and cogent story, even of his own 
actions. Both with us and at court his statements varied 
from day to day and from one hour to the next. He 
said that though he had gone to school for eight years, 
he did not learn much because his teachers were "no 
good", and only one of them ever taught him any- 
thing. 

We have studied this boy over quite a long period of 
time in an effort to learn just what his native ability is. 
Mentally we have found him most peculiar, and after 
frequent examinations we have concluded that he is a 
border line type. He cannot be regarded simply as 
out-and-out feeble-minded, nor, on the other hand, can 
we regard him as altogether normal mentally. A number 
of things he does very well, but his disabilities are equally 
as apparent. His reactions, on the whole, are rather 
slow, except when working with concrete material. 

In regard to his failures, the striking defect in several 
aspects of language ability was soon noted. We were 
impressed over and over again with the fact that words 
seemed to have no significance to this boy. He had the 
greatest trouble in expressing himself, nor could he control 
his verbal associations on tests requiring these. He made 
eight errors in giving the opposites to twenty simple 



114 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

words, a record that is extremely poor. Even when the 
correct reply was made, it required a very much longer 
time to think of the word than is normal. It was evidently 
language that had retarded this boy in school work, for 
his ability in arithmetic was far beyond that in spelling 
and reading. He knew all the fundamental processes, 
although he was not altogether accurate in the use of 
them, his mistakes being matters of carelessness. He was 
unable to write a simple sentence from dictation, and 
when he himself wished to write an account of his school- 
ing, the result was ludicrous. Even very simple words 
were misspelled, as is shown in the following : " I neear 
wast ene plaes atsed in Chicago." (I never went any 
place outside of Chicago.) 

On certain tests he did very much better, attaining 
records that were normal or very nearly so. Tests with 
concrete material he did very well, even those involving 
quite a little reasoning. His perception of relationships 
of form seemed quite normal; indeed, his records are 
rather above the average. Then, too, he seemed to have 
extremely good powers of visualizing ; wherever this could 
be called into play, the test results were excellent. This 
was a notable factor which aided his performing correctly 
several of the more difficult tests. His results on tests 
for apperception, where these dealt with material pre- 
sented in pictorial form, were normal ; a result in contra- 
diction to his social apperceptions, as shown by his con- 
versation and behavior. Tests for mental control were 
not easy for him ; he had much difficulty in keeping his 
mind on the task at hand, and his reactions here were 
very slow. As graded for intelligence by the Binet scale, 
he lacked one point of completing the twelve-year series. 
The interesting feature here was the fact that on first 
trial he failed on many of the tests which involved the 
use of language. He had much difficulty in incorporating 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 115 

words into a sentence or in rearranging words to form a 
sentence. In the latter task he never succeeded. 

Analyzing the successes and failures, we find he had 
great difficulty in all work that deals with language ; how 
much allowance should be made for this in evaluating the 
final score on the Binet scale is practically quite important 
if one uses this as the criterion for mental classification. 
Even more important, practically, is the influence of this 
special defect on school attainment, for no doubt without 
recognition of such a weakness, much school work is so 
poorly performed that the pupil becomes greatly retarded. 
More important still is the effect of such a handicap in 
vocational and social life. While certain occupations do 
not require the use of language, yet the inability to express 
oneself in regard to activities that deal with the most con- 
crete material gives an impression of extreme stupidity 
and mental dullness. Perhaps, too, it impairs the ability 
of the individual himself to apperceive his relations to 
the world, if he is unable to express even to himself general 
principles. In the case of this boy there were, of course, 
other points to be considered before concluding that a 
special defect for language existed. 

His parents were foreign born, and though a foreign 
language was spoken in the home at times, yet both the 
mother and father spoke English fairly well. The boy 
himself was born in this country and had always attended 
English-speaking schools. A brother, several years older, 
had progressed satisfactorily in school, entering the minis- 
try later. From the parents' account of conditions, we 
found that heredity as well as the developmental history 
was negative. When Rupert was five years old he met 
with an accident in which his head was hurt, but he was 
not known to be badly injured and was not unconscious. 
No other point of significance was learned. The father, 
who seemed to be a thoroughly good, hard-working man, 



116 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

not well educated, but fairly intelligent, told us that this 
boy had always been a lazy fellow, never fond of school, 
and had had difficulty in learning, particularly reading. 

Physical examination showed Rupert to be a large, 
strong lad, in very good general condition. Except for 
a rather dull expression, nothing of any significance was 
noted. 

Some element of mental dullness was due, no doubt, to 
indulgence in masturbation, which the boy acknowledged, 
and this, of course, may have accounted for the slowness of 
mental reactions. 

Naturally, at our institute, the question of a psychosis 
in this case has been considered over and over again. 
Dementia has been pretty surely ruled out because of the 
boy's good control of his mental processes in some respects 
at all times. Then he has shown definite improvement on 
several types of tests when reexamined at a considerable 
interval. He did better on Binet tests, on continuous 
subtraction, and on the association test for opposites, 
where a better score was made for time and accuracy. 

His delinquencies, which consisted of running away from 
home, long periods of idleness, during which he has 
loafed about and become involved in stealing and bur- 
glary, may be partly explained by his laziness due to bad 
sex habits, possibly by the influence of adolescence, and 
by bad companionship, the latter factor accentuated by 
the lad's social suggestibility. Aside from all these forces, 
however, the boy presents a problem difficult to adjust 
because of his peculiar mental make-up which cannot be 
altogether disregarded in any constructive efforts under- 
taken in his behalf. That he has special abilities in work- 
ing with concrete material and in visual powers, that he 
has, likewise, quite a specialized disability, as shown in all 
tasks requiring the use of language, is of practical signifi- 
cance in determining his future, just as it has been an 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN LANGUAGE 117 

element in the causations that explain his past failures, 
educationally and vocationally. Since he has had the 
usual opportunities for acquiring an ordinary vocabulary 
and for using it, and yet has not succeeded in so doing, 
we are led to conclude that there is an innate defect of a 
highly specialized nature. 



CHAPTER VII 
Special Defects in Separate Mental Processes 

Sometimes one finds in the course of a psychological 
examination certain defects of some one or more of the 
mental processes which, though having an important 
influence on achievement, are not correlated with learn- 
ing the school subjects which have already been discussed. 
Their existence and relationship to the school and social 
career may be unsuspected because, unlike instances of 
reading or language defect, no incapacity for some one 
kind of learning is found. Rather, there may be some 
general disability in mental functioning which affects all 
work, making the individual unusual in his reactions. 
Such defects in mental processes are often the explana- 
tion of failures that seem inexplicable. Hence, it is of 
very great value to discover defects of this character and 
to determine their practical significance. 

Following are presented some types of defective func- 
tioning of mental processes which, experience has shown, 
have important bearings. 

DEFECTS OF MEMORY 

Memory is a function that presents varied phases, all 
of which might be discussed, for defect may possibly be 
found in any one and not exist in others. The term 
memory is used in everyday speech with different mean- 
ings; and experimental psychology has investigated 

118 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 119 

quite a number of problems dealing with this mental 
process. There are studies of recall and of recognition; 
of immediate and remote memory ; of memory for differ- 
ent kinds of material, for sense perceptions, symbols, 
products of ideational processes, and for emotions. There 
are studies, too, of memory for logical and for rote ma- 
terial ; for visual, auditory, or motor percepts. 

The relationships of these aspects of memory to each 
other and applications to complex activities are not al- 
together known. It has already been stated in a previous 
chapter that experimentation directed towards determin- 
ing the degree of correlation that exists between different 
phases of memory has led to the general conclusion that 
there is a positive relationship of quite high degree. But 
such studies deal with very highly specialized processes; 
for example, the correlation between memory for words 
and memory for numbers, or between memory after one 
minute and memory after one hour. 

Very many practically important laws of memory 
have not yet been determined; those most firmly es- 
tablished concern themselves mainly with nonsense or 
other types of material quite unlike the activities of 
everyday life. To what extent these laws obtain in 
applied fields we do not know. In a common-sense 
way, we are aware, of course, that in practical affairs 
both immediate and remote memory are essential, that 
we need to remember what we see and what we hear, 
that to remember ideas is probably more useful, in general, 
than to have a good memory for rote material, but that 
a defect for the latter may be of great significance in 
some kinds of school work, as well as in certain occupations. 

It is perhaps unnecessary to give illustrative cases of 
peculiarities or defects in all these aspects of memory; 
in preceding case-histories many of them have been 
mentioned, and further mention will be made in case- 



120 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

histories that follow. It has been shown that some 
individuals have defects for auditory presentations; 
others for visual. It is true that persons of good in- 
telligence frequently are not hampered by a defect for 
one or more types of memory; indeed, they may even 
be unaware that it exists, for defect in one field often is 
compensated by substitution in another field. Little is 
known as yet of the relationship of some phases of mem- 
ory to learning school subjects, and especially it might 
be of great interest and value to study the role of recogni- 
tion memory in reading. 

To illustrate how widely ability in memory may vary 
in one field, two cases are cited, one of great disability and 
one of unusual ability in auditory rote memory. 

Case 21. Henry J., 16 years old, was seen after he 
had been in court on several occasions. The mental 
examination proved interesting because it showed that 
the boy was quite intelligent and in general capable, 
but had a very specialized defect. The striking feature 
of all the test work with this boy was the finding that 
he was far below normal for his age in the matter of 
rote memory. When a series of numerals was presented 
to him auditorily he could not remember more than four. 
A memory span for five numerals is expected of normal 
eight-year-old children, but this boy failed to reach this 
standard, though given numerous trials. His memory 
span for numerals presented visually was not much 
better. He succeeded here with five. Memory span 
for syllables was likewise poor; the best record he was 
able to make was repetition of fourteen syllables. On 
the other hand, where ideas were to be recalled, that is, 
where memory tests dealt with logical material, the 
results were good. A passage presented auditorily and 
containing twelve items was reproduced with the omission 
of only one, and with fair verbal accuracy. The result 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 121 

on a logical passage which he himself read was not so 
good; he gave fifteen out of twenty ideas, though it 
should be added that his version included the principal 
ideas. 

In many ways he showed more ability than the average 
boy of his nationality and social status. He was foreign 
born, but had come to this country when a very small 
child. The native language was spoken in the home 
and likewise in the school which the boy had attended 
during the greater part of his school career. He spoke 
English well, showed very good apperceptions in regard 
to his own home situation and his relationship to it, 
and did a number of mental tests very well. In spite 
of what one often finds in such cases, namely too little 
familiarity with English to do well on Binet tests where 
language is so largely involved, Henry passed well all 
the tests for ten years and all for twelve years, except 
the definition of abstract terms. Construction tests 
were very well solved and so were those involving analysis 
and mental representation. Association processes deal- 
ing with words were normal. School work was done 
sufficiently well to feel that no especial peculiarity or 
difficulty in regard to this existed. 

We find here, then, a boy who shows by his general 
reactions and the results on many tests that he is quite 
capable, but who, nevertheless, has an astonishingly 
grave defect in certain of the memory processes. That 
this had not interfered more with his progress in school 
and his acquisitions on the basis of general world ex- 
perience, is possibly due to the type of the disability 
and possibly to compensation. Nevertheless, in certain 
practical ways it might interfere with his vocational 
pursuits. Thus, in an effort to show the practical sig- 
nificance of his defect, we asked the boy to find in the 
telephone directory two telephone numbers, representing 



122 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

the different departments in the same firm, or the busi- 
ness and residence telephone numbers of some individual, 
and then after giving him a fair amount of time- in which 
to learn them he was asked to repeat them. Although 
he tried very hard in this, he never succeeded in any one 
of a number of trials. Such a difficulty as this would 
preclude the possibility of success in office work, or, 
indeed, for any occupation where rote memory had to 
be depended upon. 

His delinquency, staying away from home, was largely 
accounted for by home conditions, which were so wretched 
as to offer little that would satisfy any normal boy. The 
father was a very abusive and ill-tempered man. 

Physically Henry was quite poorly developed for his 
age. He was small and not well nourished, but he was 
a bright-eyed, healthy looking boy, nevertheless. There 
were no sensory defects, nor was any history of severe 
illness obtained. 

Case 22. Let us now contrast with the above case 
that of Benjamin L., a young man of over 20. He had 
had unusually fine educational opportunities, both from 
the standpoint of schools he had attended and the en- 
vironment in which he lived. His family were well 
educated and cultured people, and since this boy was 
very companionable with both parents, he had, of course, 
gained much from the home surroundings. In spite 
of the chance for good mental interests, he did not 
care for book learning and had no desire to attend college. 
After leaving school he had been placed in a bank where 
he had to work largely with numbers. 

Mental examination showed that this young man had 
certain very distinct abilities, the most striking of which 
was memory for rote material. For auditory presenta- 
tions his record was twelve numerals correct, and thirteen 
were repeated with the transposition of only one numeral. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PKOCESSES 123 

This remarkable performance was consistently maintained 
on several trials. For syllables, — that is sentences, 
but where there was no logical connection, — the record 
was likewise extremely good, thirty-two syllables being 
repeated without any effort. Other points brought out 
by psychological study were the following : He proved 
to have very good mechanical ability, handling concrete 
material with splendid perceptions and much skill. Like- 
wise he possessed excellent ability in the use of language. 
He talked very well, showed a good discrimination in the 
choice of words and had a distinct gift for clear and 
effective presentation of his ideas. 

None of the qualities in which he really excelled was 
being used in his vocational pursuits, whereas he was 
occupied with just the things that had always interested 
him least. We merely mention this as evidence of the 
fact that even in intelligent families there is little realiza- 
tion of talent and of weakness in the placing of young 
people in occupations. 

There was not the slightest evidence that the training 
received by this young man accounted in any way for 
his unusually good rote memory, nor in the preceding 
case. had education bettered innately poor memory span. 

Case 23. Exceedingly defective remote memory may 
be found in an individual whose immediate memory is 
normal. This fact is clearly shown in the analysis of 
the following case, which illustrates likewise the prac- 
tical significance of such a defect. 

Peter R., 11 years old when first seen by us, has been 
examined many times during the year which has inter- 
vened since the first study. He has been tested by 
three examiners and retested by two of them several 
times. The mental characteristics which have been 
noted in the laboratory are quite in accord with the 
observations of his teachers. 



124 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

On psychological examination it is apparent at once 
that there is no difficulty with immediate memory; a 
large number of varied tests all offer proof of this fact. 
That immediate visual memory is not defective is shown 
by the excellent results on the Binet figures and by his 
recital on the Aussage test. In the latter, after seeing 
the picture for ten seconds, Peter enumerated as many 
objects and details as are given by the average person 
of his age, and on cross-examination we found that he 
could give correct replies concerning many other items. 
For auditory stimuli immediate memory was also normal. 
Tests here were quite in accord with norms for his age. 
He could repeat five numerals readily, and occasionally 
six; in memory for syllables he did rather better than 
the norm, while auditory memory for logical verbal 
material proved to be very good. He formed new asso- 
ciations such as are required in the arbitrary association 
test; remembered directions told him orally, and was 
able to carry in mind and later imitate a series of move- 
ments involving six steps (the Knox Cube test), after 
having been shown three times ; he could even remember 
and control four numerals presented auditorily when he 
was required to retell them backwards. 

On a number of tests requiring very little memory and 
meant to gauge specifically other mental processes, he 
did very well. The construction tests were performed 
normally; both cross line tests were correct on first 
trial; the pictorial completion test was done well, and 
control of verbal association as indicated by the opposites 
test presented no unusual features. 

What has impressed every one is the fact that this 
boy cannot retain for any length of time what he is able 
to learn immediately and what has been presented to 
him with most patient and persistent efforts. When 
we first saw him we were told that both his mother and 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 125 

his school teachers considered him a very dull lad. It 
was quite true that he had gained very little from all 
his school experience; he could not read a simple first- 
grade passage, and he could write only his name and 
three or four other words; adding simple number com- 
binations constituted his acquirements in arithmetic. 
His writing is poor, the letters often are not properly 
formed; he is not only left-handed, but writes in an 
awkward, overhand fashion. 

Since our first examination we know that the boy has 
attended the public schools for some five or six months, 
and that later he has received intensive and individual 
help during a period of four months by a teacher who has 
been most zealous in her efforts to help the boy. In 
spite of this, we find that he has made absolutely no head- 
way in any of the school branches. He cannot remember 
the phonetic values of the different letters, although he 
has received a great amount of drill in these. At the 
end of a day's lesson he knows them, but by the next 
day they are forgotten. In consequence, he has made no 
progress in either reading or spelling. 

For days at a time he has been drilled in the process 
of subtraction, and although he understands it and im- 
mediately after being taught can solve problems without 
error, yet when the drill is stopped for two or three days, 
all that he has learned has been absolutely lost. He 
knows a few of the simpler combinations of the multi- 
plication tables; the more difficult ones he cannot re- 
member. After he has been told the date again and 
again, if a few days elapse before he is questioned, he 
will make the wildest guesses; thus, after having heard 
each morning for several weeks that the current month 
was September, when the drill was stopped for three 
days he said in reply to a question that it was February. 
After months of effort he is finally able to name the 



126 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

months of the year without error, but he cannot remem- 
ber his birthday or learn to tell time, and he acquires 
almost no information about events of the day. We are 
told that several of his schoolmates have endeavored to 
teach him, and that his responses to questions after an 
interval of some days are so ludicrous and his information 
is so absurdly confused that they roar with laughter at 
his errors. 

The defect found by the above tests is corroborated by 
other tests for remote memory. He is unable to remem- 
ber the figures of the arbitrary association test which he 
has done three times previously. He cannot recall the 
passage used in the auditory verbal test for logical mem- 
ory ; he does not remember that this test was given him 
the year before, although at the time the immediate 
reproduction was excellent. He cannot recall a single 
one of any of the short incidents used in the absurdities 
tests. When asked to describe any of the tests given to 
him previously, he is unable to do so. Trying to recol- 
lect the Binet test for three words in a sentence, he gives 
one of the three words incorrectly, although he had done 
the test well less than a month earlier. Very curious 
was his attempt to draw a simple scheme of the arrange- 
ment of three large buildings at an institution where he 
spent ten happy days some two months before. It 
seemed incredible that the relationships of the buildings 
should not have been recollected; he pictured them 
absurdly misplaced. Questioned about evening enter- 
tainments which have been given once a week at the 
institution where he is living, he tells us vaguely about 
stereopticon pictures of snow mountains, but cannot tell 
what country they are in nor can he recollect certain 
pictures of London, seen on another occasion, except to 
say that they were pictures of buildings in some old 
country. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 127 

It should be stated that this boy is a very faithful and 
industrious worker. He has been making the most 
serious attempts to take advantage of the efforts that 
are being made in his behalf. He will invent problems 
and bring them to his teacher when his routine work is 
completed. In the manual training room, although he 
shows some little initiative and good imitative ability, 
directions have to be given him over and over again. 

Binet tests offer little that is of any help in interpre- 
tation of such a case ; they do not indicate the particular 
defect which is the most interesting feature of the boy's 
mentality. The first record graded him 9f years mentally. 
His last testing, over a year later, indicated very little 
advancement; he has now learned the months of the 
year and succeeds on one other test previously a failure. 
Naturally, remote memory is so important an aspect of 
mental life that great disability in it affects learning 
to such an extent that an individual with this defect 
must be considered educationally and socially a defec- 
tive. In the case outlined above we have always felt 
the prognosis to be poor ; the boy will continue to grade 
as a moron. 

The contrast between remote and immediate memory 
powers in this case is strikingly shown in the graphic 
form which we sometimes use in evaluating test results 
and we therefore append it : 

TESTS FOR REMOTE MEMORY 

Below normal Normal or above 

Visual memory 
Logical verbal memory 
General information 
Number work ; processes and 
combinations 



128 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Learning — as of birthday, date, 
current month, months of 
year, etc. 

Reading, either by word pic- 
tures or phonetic values 

Telling time 

Relating past events 



TESTS FOR IMMEDIATE MEMORY 

Visual — Binet and other 
geometrical figures 

Syllables — 24 correct 

Memory span — 5 numerals 
always; 6 numerals oc- 
casionally 

4 digits backwards 

8 memories (Terman test 
read to him) 

Substitution test 

Auditory — verbal memory 
test 

Aussage picture test 

Knox Cube test — imitating 
a series of movements 

Learning — as of school sub- 
jects, birthday, date, etc. 



DEFECTS OF INNER VISUAL FUNCTIONS 

Analogous to auditory defect, illustrations of defect 
in visual functions are presented. No doubt such dis- 
ability may be more or less specialized, the significance 
increasing with the extent and degree to which the defect 
exists. Certain of the practical correlations of visual 
defects have already been noted in the discussion of dis- 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 129 

ability for reading ; but they are by no means limited to 
this school subject. They influence a much wider range 
of activities. 

This type of disability is properly placed after memory 
defect because in considering defects in the visual powers, 
memory plays so large a part. 

Case 24. Harry R., 14 years and 9 months of age, 
had made much slower progress in school than any other 
member of his large family. The boy was said to study 
hard at home, where the father and an older sister helped 
him frequently with his lessons. He was in the sixth 
grade, but maintained his position there only with diffi- 
culty. Although his family regarded him as retarded 
in school work, they considered him normal in all other 
respects. He was so conscious of his disabilities that 
he had become sensitive to the extent of crying bitterly 
if scolded because of his poor record. 

Psychological examination showed that this boy's 
abilities were quite uneven, and that he had a striking 
defect in visual powers. His perception of form evi- 
dently was not notably poor, but perception of relation- 
ships of form was exceedingly defective. He failed to 
solve the simpler construction test, ordinarily performed 
by normal eight-year-old children. His efforts on the 
more difficult one were purely random; many impossi- 
bilities were tried, and the final result was likewise a 
failure. Visual memory was equally as defective. The 
Binet test for memory of geometrical figures was repro- 
duced so poorly that the forms were altogether unrecog- 
nizable. A figure even simpler than either of the Binet 
forms was not reproduced correctly. Indeed, the boy 
failed on three or four tests all designed for testing visual 
memory. Neither could he draw the simplest diagram 
of the facade of his own house ; after representing it by 
an oblong, he could not place the doors and windows. 



130 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

In an attempt to draw the floor plan of his home he be- 
came utterly confused; he could not indicate where the 
doorway was located, nor how the rooms were arranged. 

It was evident on the cross-line tests that the boy could 
not represent to himself the figures and the various parts, 
although he could draw the figures and number them 
correctly; even with the model before him he could not 
identify the sections. Clearly, his powers of visual rep- 
resentation were very defective. Associations between 
numbers and symbols as required in the substitution 
test were very slowly formed, the boy making on the 
whole a very poor record here. We noted on the apper- 
ception test that while he readily grasped the meaning 
of the situations depicted, he was slow in finding the 
pieces which he wished to insert. Indeed, wherever 
visual powers were concerned, the boy was slow and 
frequently unsuccessful. 

In marked contrast to his poor visual powers, we found 
unusually prompt reactions to auditory stimuli. Mem- 
ory span for numerals presented auditorily was beyond 
the norm for his age; he was able to reproduce eight 
digits with ease. Incidentally, we were interested in the 
fact that he repeated the numbers in phonographic fashion 
quite without effort. Memory for logical material where 
the passage was read to him proved to be very good, 
ten out of twelve items being given and these including 
the main ideas. Here the verbal accuracy was distinctly 
good. He did not do quite as well in the memory pas- 
sage which he himself read ; twelve of twenty items were 
reproduced in correct sequence, but we noted by the 
movements of his lips that the boy was saying to himself 
the words as he read them. Nor did there seem to be 
any difficulty in control of verbal associations; in the 
opposites test there were no errors or failures. Very 
good auditory discrimination was shown in repeating 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 131 

difficult sentences and phrases. Enunciation was good, 
and even catch phrases were repeated correctly. He 
sang "America" accurately. 

General intelligence, as gauged by the Binet tests, was 
not defective; he graded through twelve years. He 
failed on the Binet visual test, already mentioned, and 
could not name the months in order, but, on the other 
hand, three of the fifteen-year tests were well done. 
Where common sense or reasoning was required, responses 
were correct and quite prompt. Absurdities were de- 
tected, and even the fifteen-year tests for interpretation 
and inference caused him no trouble. 

The boy was poorly informed, possibly due to the fact 
that he read very little. Indeed, we soon found that 
he was unable to read a third-grade passage with any 
degree of fluency or accuracy. He often failed on even 
simple words, substituting some word that the context 
suggested. Having stumbled slowly through a passage 
he could reproduce the meaning. His difficulty lay in 
recognition of the symbols. Many words had to be 
sounded first phonetically. Spelling was similarly poor; 
he wrote, "The prenter mad some cors." In number 
work he was inaccurate in carrying out the processes, 
although he understood the principles involved and 
knew the number combinations. He very rapidly gave 
the multiplication tables orally, making only one error 
when he said " ten times twelve is one hundred and two." 
Perhaps it would be stretching the point to interpret this 
error as certainly due to a wrong visual picture, but 
this interpretation is interesting at least as a possibility. 
Reasoning powers, as shown on simple arithmetical prob- 
lems as well as in a number of other tests, seemed quite 
normal. 

We have here, then, a boy who shows a decided differ- 
ence in auditory and visual powers, the former being 



132 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

distinctly good and the latter decidedly below normal. 
So far as he was tested, anything in the auditory field 
was done extremely well. 

Physically the boy was fairly well developed, but rather 
poorly nourished. There may have been some difficulty 
with adenoids, for he was a partial mouth-breather. 
He had suffered no illnesses, except that when he was 
seven years old he had fallen, striking the back of his 
head, and two weeks later went to the hospital because 
paralysis of the left side then appeared. He was said to 
have been unable to talk for about ten days, but then re- 
covered his speech. At the time of our examination, we 
found no speech defect of any kind. Evidently he made 
a good recovery; when we saw him there was but very 
slight atrophy of the left side, knee jerks were almost 
equal, and there was very little difference noted in the 
strength of the two arms ; he walked with a slight limp. 

Case 25. Edgar M., 11 years old, has had the best of 
opportunities, both from the standpoint of home environ- 
ment and continuous attendance at an unusually fine 
school. Every advantage that comes from intelligent 
home interest and cooperation has been his. By his 
regular teachers and occasional tutors much effort has 
been expended in the desire to help the boy progress. 
In spite of all this, he was brought to us by his highly 
intelligent parents as a case which was perhaps not under- 
stood and which was felt to be met unsatisfactorily by the 
ordinary school procedure. He was not a disciplinary 
problem, but he showed extremely little interest in school 
work, and little initiative or response even in outside 
activities. His range of interests was said to be very 
limited. 

Our several psychological examinations revealed the 
fact that in many respects Edgar was far beyond his age 
in ability, in spite of his poor standing in school. As 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 133 

judged by the Binet scale, his general intelligence was 
much in advance of his chronological age, for he passed 
all the tests through the twelve and fifteen-year groups 
readily. His apperceptions were exceedingly keen and 
good, as was shown in many ways. Not only did he do 
well on psychological tests for apperception, but he 
showed an unusually keen sense of humor for a boy of 
his age, very quickly perceiving the point of a joke or 
riddle, and his social apperceptions, as shown by his 
good manners and general politeness, corroborated the 
findings on tests. Then, too, his reasoning ability we 
discovered to be far beyond the norm for his age. This 
was evidenced by a variety of tests in this field, including 
such fairly difficult tasks as the analogies test designed 
for fifteen-year old children. He very quickly perceived 
the relationships involved and made not a single error 
in any test of this kind. 

Tests requiring a number of abilities, as in the difficult 
directions test, were done extremely well, with good 
powers of attention and concentration, with full apprecia- 
tion of the "catches", and with a very rational under- 
standing of all that was required. Processes of associa- 
tion as tested in several ways were normal. These in- 
cluded both free and controlled verbal associations and 
the formation of new associations between arbitrary 
symbols, in which the boy showed quite good learning 
ability. Tests for analysis and mental representation 
were done correctly too, but in the more difficult of these 
it was apparent that the visual powers were not any aid, 
and the solution was largely by means of reasoning out 
the situations. As for memory, there was found a distinct 
difference in the auditory and visual fields, the former 
being considerably better. This was true both for rote 
and logical material. Whereas the boy could remember 
readily eight numerals heard once, it was extraordinary 



134 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

to note that he had difficulty in remembering seven pre- 
sented visually, and succeeded then only by translating 
visual into auditory terms. A passage read to him was 
reproduced very well, only one item out of twelve being 
omitted, but when he himself read a passage, the reproduc- 
tion was considerably worse, only thirteen out of twenty 
items being recalled. 

In connection with his poor visual memory, it was 
interesting to observe that all visual perceptions were 
extremely slow. In the construction test, where the prob- 
lems require the perception of relationships of form, the 
procedure was rational, but very slow. Again in the 
apperception test the boy very quickly gave the meaning 
of the situations depicted pictorially, but was very slow 
in finding the pieces he wished to insert, showing that 
his apperceptions were quicker than his visual perceptions. 

This slowness of perception and innate lack of good 
visual power was strikingly apparent on the so-called 
Aussage test, where after seeing a picture for a brief 
time an account of it is given, after which questions are 
asked concerning points not voluntarily mentioned. In 
this test the boy distinctly showed his disability; he 
gave only five items in the free account and was exceed- 
ingly uncertain in regard to other points about which 
he was questioned. He often said, "I don't know", 
or "I'm not sure", and some of the more prominent 
objects depicted were not seen by him at all. His per- 
formance here was very much worse than that of many 
a child who is actually younger, to say nothing of less 
generally intelligent than he. Coupled with his slow- 
ness in visual perception, there was quite a little difficulty 
in motor coordination. He was unable to make a good 
record on the so-called tapping test, and his poor writing 
indicated, too, this lack of psychomotor control. 

In school the difficulty had partly been to arouse and 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 135 

maintain the boy's interest. He was retarded in arith- 
metic ; he had learned to add, subtract, and to multiply, 
all of which he did slowly ; in long division, however, he 
was exceedingly inaccurate. He failed on several simple 
examples given him. In spite of his very good reasoning 
powers he did not do well in arithmetical problems. 
He read fluently and as well as could be expected for his 
age and grade. He gave a good reproduction of the ideas 
contained in the passage, but even so he much preferred 
being read to; he himself said, "I am too lazy to read 
it", and the physical side of the process seemed irksome. 
Another school question arose from the fact that he wrote 
so slowly and so poorly, in consequence of which his 
spelling was not up to the standard of his class. 

The peculiarities in Edgar's mental make-up revealed 
by the psychological tests become significant for under- 
standing the school record which so puzzled his teachers 
and parents. His difficulty in visual perception and his 
slowness in this field had been a very great handicap in 
many of the schoolroom activities. He could not per- 
ceive at a normal rate such work as was put upon the 
blackboard, or even what he read from books. Cer- 
tainly, however, his perception of ideas was normal. It 
is only through meeting such a problem that we realize 
how much of school work requires normal powers of visual 
perception. 

The poor visual memory which this boy demonstrated 
undoubtedly also entered into the situation, but since 
he transposes so readily visual into auditory terms, this 
probably was not so great a factor as his other difficulty, 
namely, poor motor coordinations. Slowness in visual 
perceptions and slowness in writing due to his poor 
motor coordinations explain his retardation in spite of 
his very unusual abilities in so many ways. In oral 
recitations where reasoning is involved, or where general 



136 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

intelligence or ability to grasp meaning is the main ele- 
ment, this boy would do extremely well, but since a large 
part of the ordinary schoolroom procedure deals with 
mechanical elements difficult for him, he is at a great 
disadvantage. 

Other facts regarding the boy are as follows: Edgar 
was born in England, but came with his parents to this 
country when a very small lad and began school at the 
usual age, attending regularly. The heredity and de- 
velopmental history are entirely negative. Physically 
he is decidedly small for his age, but quite well nourished. 
His considerable myopia has been corrected by glasses 
since he was six years old. No other sensory defects 
have been noted in the course of examinations by the 
best of specialists. He seemed rather lacking in energy 
and vigor. Physical reactions have all his life been 
notably quiet, though he is a healthy boy. 

On the constructive side, concerning what could be 
done in such a case, one naturally thinks of several possible 
plans. With individual help perhaps much might be 
accomplished through systematic training to improve 
his powers of visual perception. All kinds of devices 
could be employed to give practice in the visual field, so 
that his perceptions would become more rapid. The 
same is true regarding psychomotor control. Corrective 
gymnastics and games, first simple and then becoming 
more and more difficult, ought to be a great help to him. 
And then much school work which now stresses, or in- 
deed taxes, the perceptual side, could be eliminated in 
favor of other methods of presentation. Thorndike has 
made the point that no work in the schoolroom is as 
trying on the eyes as the copying of numbers from the 
blackboard, and has suggested that much eye strain 
could be saved by giving arithmetic work in books where 
the problems are already written and only the solution 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 137 

need be set down. There is a tremendous waste of time, 
effort, and nervous energy in the amount of copying 
that is demanded of children in the ordinary schoolroom 
without any profit accruing from the task. All children 
suffer thereby, and in a case such as the one under dis- 
cussion the penalty is extreme. 

In the case of Edgar several matters pertaining to the 
physical side of his make-up were taken into serious 
consideration. In the first place, thinking of the basis 
of his defects, what part did his myopia play in possibly 
preventing the acquisition of ordinary visual impressions 
and perceptions, in preventing the mind from being stored 
to anything like the normal extent with visual imagery? 
Easy though it may be to suggest such causation, it is 
quite impossible to affirm that myopia was or could 
have been the main factor. It is true that up to his 
sixth year Edgar was gaining but poor impressions of the 
seen world, but during the succeeding five years eyesight 
was nearly normal. Besides, plenty of other children 
who have suffered as much early in life from myopia 
have not later shown such marked disability for visual 
perceptions. And why should the visual difficulty have 
affected visual memory to the extent of creating a defect ? 
All together, it seems to us, the probability is that the 
origin of the defect in this case lies much deeper than 
early imperfect vision. 

Then, the question whether the general physical condi- 
tion was responsible for lack of interest and initiative was 
considered. The only way to answer this was to observe 
the effects of appropriate physical treatment. There was 
no problem of general health, — Edgar was quite up to the 
average in this respect, — but he had not grown normally, 
so far ; he was decidedly small for his age. And the re- 
markable quietness of his physical reactions, we felt, 
might portend that the sources of physical energy were 



138 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

not well maintained. He had suffered from recurrent 
adenoids, but these, as well as any other slight ailment, 
were promptly cared for under the best of advice. We 
thought of general physiological problems of metabolism 
and their relation to internal gland secretions. With a 
view to improving any fault of this kind, if it existed, 
appropriate treatment was instituted. 

At this time our findings were presented to Edgar's 
teachers in conference and they, appreciating thoroughly 
his problem, began anew, now with different methods, 
to cooperate with the parents in stimulating and instruct- 
ing him. Some have suggested that the bare fact of a 
study having been made of his case and new interest 
taken in him, has led Edgar to become more conscious 
of his difficulties and has really awakened him to better 
efforts, which of themselves have largely turned the tide. 
. As in many instances where a satisfactory treatment 
has been introduced, the relative values of the several 
changes are hard to determine. At any rate, the results 
in this case have been most gratifying. While no essential 
physical changes were observed, Edgar began very soon 
to show new interest in his work, to make unprecedented 
headway, and to maintain well his standing in his class. 
It is reported that in the year which has elapsed since 
we first saw him, he has shown great advance in mental 
energy and in acquisitions. 

DISABILITIES FOR WORK WITH CONCRETE 
MATERIAL 

In considering ability and disability for manual work, 
we must again remember that distinctions exist between 
activities that may seem on the surface much alike. It 
is one thing to be unable to solve problems dealing witH 
concrete material because of difficulty in finding methods 
of solution, and quite a different thing to produce a poor 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 139 

result because of lack of dexterity to carry out well the 
solution one has reached. The former depends upon 
ability to reason regarding situations involving perception 
of concrete relationships. Ruger x has shown the in- 
dividual differences that exist in ability to solve puzzles, 
where methods employed by intelligent college-trained 
subjects vary all the way from random trial and error to 
deliberated planfulness, based on analysis and reasoning. 

Acquisition of manual skill necessary to carry ideas into 
execution depends on good psychomotor control and 
effective coordinations. Where there is disability in 
psychomotor control, perception of relationship may be 
normal, the method of solution quickly seen, but the 
ability to carry out the plan of procedure is poor, because 
the neural connections leading to movement are faulty. 

There has been some recognition of differences in 
ability to perform manual work, though the emphasis 
has been placed more often on unusual ability in this 
direction in individuals who are generally dull or unable 
to progress normally in work dealing with abstractions. 
Holmes 2 speaks of individuals with "concrete minds" 
or "manual minds." On the other hand, very frequently 
too little cognizance is taken of defects for dealing with 
concrete problems. Perhaps it is therefore wise to stress 
the fact that disabilities of this kind exist. More and 
more handwork is being offered in schools, and it seems 
quite generally taken for granted that all children are 
fitted for this type of work. While we do not doubt 
that some benefit is to be derived from such training, 
even by those not possessed of manual skill, yet the 
general educational and vocational aspects are extremely 
important to keep in mind. 

1 Ruger, A. H., "Psychology of Efficiency." Archives of Psychology, 
15. 

2 Holmes, Arthur. " The Backward Child." 1915. 



140 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

From among a number of instances that we have met, 
an illustration of educational and vocational misplacing 
made because of lack of appreciation of this type of 
defect is cited. 

Case 26. Melvin W., 15 years old, was American 
born, of foreign parentage. He had attended public 
school from his sixth year, but had been such an extreme 
truant that three times he had been committed to a 
school for such offenders. Both there and at another 
correctional institution where he was held for some time 
the main emphasis is placed on manual training, al- 
though the usual school subjects are also taught. 

The findings on psychological tests in this case were 
very striking because of the discrepancy between results 
on tests for constructive ability, as shown in the handling 
of concrete material, and on those involving abstractions. 
We must take into consideration the unusual amount of 
training along motor lines which Melvin had received. 
In spite of the months spent in shop work, the boy could 
not perform well any test with concrete material that 
required perception of relationships or needed any in- 
dependent thinking or judgment. He had learned to do 
certain simple tasks through imitation; given the parts 
which were to make an object, the model of which was 
before him, he succeeded; that is, he could copy from 
the model the steps required, but where the purpose was 
stated and he himself had to find the method to achieve 
the end, he was a dismal failure. Simple construction 
tests frequently done by normal eight-year-old children 
proved too difficult for him. He solved them only by 
random methods, showing not the slightest comprehension 
of the problems as such; he did not profit by his own 
mistakes, but kept repeating them, with slight apper- 
ceptions in the face of this kind of situation. He was 
extremely awkward in the use of his hands, demonstrating 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 141 

decidedly poor psychomotor control. He seemed quite 
unable to size up any practical, concrete situation, even 
such as Terman's Ball and Field Puzzle, where the person 
is asked to tell the best method that can be used in find- 
ing a ball lost in a circular field of high grass. In the 
Yerkes Multiple Choice test, which so specially tests 
ability to form generalizations on the basis of repeated 
experience with concrete situations, his record on the first 
two problems was considerably worse than the tentative 
norms for untrained subjects. Indeed, a variety of tests, 
all requiring the same kind of ability, namely, judgment 
or skill with actual material, corroborated each other. 

But on work of different types the boy did quite well. 
Tests for the powers of mental analysis and mental repre- 
sentation caused him no trouble, and he showed normal 
apperceptions of ideas expressed verbally. He was able 
to do normally the so-called directions test. His verbal 
associations were normal, and we found no trouble with 
memory in any phase. In repeating the ideas contained 
in a logical passage, he was hampered by poor knowledge 
of English, yet the main ideas themselves were reproduced. 
In the substitution learning test he made a good record, 
and reasoning powers required for response to common- 
sense questions, in the detection of incongruities and in 
arithmetical problems, were quite good. 

Of routine school work Melvin had not acquired a 
great deal, but we felt that there was no defect for work 
of this type, since one had to take into consideration 
the excessive truancy which had been a feature of his 
entire school life. When we first saw him he was inac- 
curate in all work in arithmetic, although he knew the 
processes and number combinations. At that time he 
read only haltingly, mispronouncing less commonly met 
words, but he could give the gist of what he read. Our 
explanation of these rather poor results proved to be 



142 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

correct, for with three months' training in these school 
branches he gained vastly. When the same work was 
tried at the expiration of this time, we found that he 
had learned to add, subtract, multiply, and divide cor- 
rectly and quickly. He had improved quite a little in 
his writing and spelling, and somewhat in reading, though 
this was still not very good. 

He came from a rather poor home; both father and 
mother were dull, hard-working people. They lived in a 
congested neighborhood where the boy was thrown with 
bad companions. Indeed, Melvin had been in court 
repeatedly over a period of two years, involved in truancy, 
stealing, and burglary with the same group of boys. 
The problem was that of a typical street gang, and neither 
the home nor the neighborhood offered anything to sub- 
stitute for the misconduct that characterized these boys. 
We were unable to obtain from the dull parents any facts 
of significance in regard to the heredity, but we noted 
in the physical examination of the boy evidences of 
congenital lues; a blood test, however, resulted in a 
negative reaction. Neither were we able to obtain a 
good developmental history. Our physical examination 
showed that there were no sensory defects nor any signs 
of nervous disturbance. The boy was fairly well devel- 
oped, and himself said that he had never been very ill. 

Concerning education, this case illustrates the fallacy 
of a very common procedure. It seems to be quite a 
prevalent idea that the main training undertaken in 
correctional institutions ought to be along the lines of 
manual work. Of course numerous considerations enter 
in, and for boys of a certain age no doubt trade training 
is to be advocated in order that upon release they may 
be fitted for an occupation which will make them eco- 
nomically successful. But there are some, like Melvin, 
who are incapable of profiting much by the expenditure 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 143 

of this educational effort and who would, perhaps, suc- 
ceed far better in work which would prepare them, let 
us say, for employment in an office. Our diagnosis in 
regard to this boy's lack of ability for manual tasks was 
in accord with the reports given us by his manual training 
teachers. One of them said in regard to Melvin that the 
boy had to be shown what to do step by step, and then 
the instructor had to stand over him to see that he did 
it. Although he had been given a considerable amount 
of individual help, he was unable to carry out any plan- 
ning by himself. He showed no initiative or originality 
in the work, no ability to use material in a rational way. 
The teacher himself felt confident that the boy would 
never be successful at this type of work. 

With his inadequate school training because of his 
excessive truancy, the boy really was unfitted for any 
employment. He had previously been placed at jobs 
that were along the line of his greatest incapacity. He 
worked in factories and had not been successful. Once 
he had been placed, through his probation officer, in a 
carpenter shop. We can easily see what should have 
been done in this case. Instead of the time devoted to 
shop work, the boy should have had intensive training 
in writing and number work, or something of a type 
which would have made it possible for him to succeed 
at clerical work, or at least in some position where he 
would not have had to do skilled manual work. 

Case 27. A record can be given of a few tests which 
show, extreme difficulty in solving problems with concrete 
material, unaccompanied by poor psychomotor control, 
and in great contrast to results on other types of tests. 

Alexander T., 13 years and 9 months of age, was a 
serious boy who made great efforts to do well all that 
was asked of him. He worked persistently and with 
good powers of attention. In spite of his earnest en- 



144 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

deavors, the results on tests with concrete material were 
uniformly poor. The simpler construction test, solved 
usually by young children, he did by a purely random 
method, numerous impossibilities being repeated again 
and again. Perception of relationships was no better 
on the more difficult construction test; here the boy 
seemed utterly unable to work in any rational way. He 
tried every possible combination, repeating his errors, 
and finally at the end of five minutes had not succeeded. 
On the Stenquist test for mechanical ability, he demon- 
strated no more skill; he worked persistently, but at 
the end of a half hour he had not completed all of the 
models. The simpler models were correctly copied, but 
the lock was not put together properly, several of the 
parts being omitted, a fact which Alexander did not ap- 
preciate. One of the simplest models was not correctly 
bolted together; the placing of a single rubber band 
over pegs to form a five-pointed star caused the greatest 
trouble. Although the boy looked at the copy most 
carefully and persisted for twenty-three minutes in his 
efforts to place the rubber band, he finally gave it up. 

No awkwardness whatever was displayed in his manip- 
ulation of concrete material, and tests gave no evidence 
of any difficulty in psychomotor control. On both the 
tapping test and the instructions box he made a good 
record. His writing of words and figures was rapid and 
remarkably neat. 

On tests of other types responses were prompt and 
normal. Both cross-line tests were solved correctly on 
first trial. Apperceptions, as shown on the completion 
test, were rapid and accurate. School work was done 
well for his grade, and according to the Binet scale the 
boy graded as normal. His delinquencies were no doubt 
due to factors other than his special disability ; the latter 
doubtless would play a great role later in vocational life. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 145 

DEFECT IN, SPEED OF REACTIONS 

In any study of performance there are two factors 
which need to be considered. On the one hand, there 
is the accuracy of the reaction ; on the other hand, there 
is the speed of the reaction. In evaluating test results, 
both factors, accuracy and speed, are frequently com- 
bined. In different kinds of work either the one or the 
other may be the more important factor of the two. 

Though both in school and later in the business world 
the emphasis shifts back and forth from one to the other, 
now speed, now accuracy being more important, at no 
time is either altogether negligible. The problem in 
arithmetic, for example, must be solved correctly, but 
also rapidly enough to be completed within certain limits 
of time. The child who cannot keep up with the average 
of the class because of slowness of mental reactions is at 
a very great disadvantage. Even though he understands 
his work and can perform it correctly if given long enough 
time, he becomes an out-and-out school failure if unable 
to complete tasks as promptly as is required. In indus- 
trial life speed is often a very vital consideration. 

Many experimental studies of reaction types have been 
made, and though the explanation of differences in speed 
may be obscure, inasmuch as we do not know whether 
all or only part of the active neural mechanism is at 
fault, the fact that there is great variability in reaction 
time is well known. Slowness of reaction leads to prac- 
tical consequences even early in life. Holmes x cites an 
interesting case of a child who because of his general 
slowness was most unfortunately considered a dunce in 
school, but who later when properly adjusted vocationally 
was a tremendous success. Almost everyone is acquainted 
with people who are intelligent enough, but who are slow. 

i Holmes, Arthur. !'The Backward Child.:! 1915, 



146 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Sometimes this inability to react quickly is characteristic 
of all responses, and sometimes it is true only in special 
fields. 

That slowness of mental reactions is sometimes the 
explanation of seeming general incapacity is illustrated 
by the following case : 

Case 28. Arthur R., 17 years old, was a boy who had 
exceedingly good educational advantages, but he was 
considered by his family and his teachers, and so ul- 
timately by himself, to be a failure. Because of his 
poor school record and his general slowness, his quick- 
minded family categorized him as innately stupid, and 
now, at this late age, desired a study made of his difficulties 
and educational possibilities. 

Mental tests given to this young man showed a sig- 
nificant difference from normal achievement, not so 
much because of inability to succeed with the problems 
and tasks, but because of the unusually long time the 
performance nearly always required. This characteristic 
was even evident when Arthur was working with concrete 
material, though less so than with abstract; perceptions 
of form and of relationships of form were accurate but 
slow. In problems dealing with the concrete he learned 
fairly readily and retained what he learned. His apper- 
ceptions, though normal, were exceedingly slow; his 
record on the pictorial completion test indicates that he 
required at least twice the amount of time that is or- 
dinarily needed by a normal person of Arthur's age. 
When the task was completed, however, no errors were 
made. It was interesting to compare results on memory 
tests for logical material with memory span and to inter- 
pret the distinct difference that was found. On the 
former far better results were achieved than on the latter. 
On tests for logical material, the reproduction does not 
follow as quickly as in tests for memory span. The sub- 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 147 

ject reads the passage as slowly as he wishes when pres- 
entation is visual, and when it is auditory the passage 
is read to him several times. But, in testing the memory 
span the reproduction is immediate, the numbers being 
read but once and the visual stimulus exposed but ten 
seconds. 

Given sufficient time, Arthur showed normal ability 
to analyze and reason, but in all tests where time is 
considered significant, the results were distinctly poor. 
On the very easy substitution test, two errors were made 
on the first trial and none on the second, indicating the 
exceeding slowness with which associations of arbitrary 
symbols were formed. The Kraepelin test was performed 
without error, but very slowly and deliberately. In the 
attempt to open the puzzle box, the boy studied the 
situation for five minutes before making the first move, 
after which the task was completed very rapidly. Some 
tests which he failed to solve in the laboratory he worked 
out by pondering over them until the examination of the 
next day. Tests requiring the use of language revealed 
also Arthur's characteristic slowness of mental reaction. 
All were ultimately correct, but he was slow both in 
comprehending a situation presented verbally and in 
expressing his own ideas. It was quite surprising to 
find that this boy of good education and coming from a 
home of culture should have much trouble in forming a 
sentence containing three assigned words or in stating 
clearly distinctions between a king and a president. In 
school work he did very poorly, especially arithmetic, 
where even addition, though done correctly, took a very 
great deal of time. Errors were made in multiplication 
and division. 

If the performances are carefully analyzed, it is found 
that this boy is not lacking in any of the higher thought 
processes. He shows good powers of analysis and mental 



148 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

representation, reasoning, planfulness, and fairly good 
mental control. The extreme slowness with which the 
mental processes function is the most striking feature of 
all his work. His inability to use language well, to ex- 
press his own ideas in clear and forceful form, probably 
is due to his inability to formulate his ideas quickly. 
Perhaps if his answers had been written and he had been 
able to revise them, taking as much time as he desired, 
as in the case of the problems he solved overnight, he 
might have been able to prove that he has good ability 
in this direction too. 

He was said to have walked and talked at a much 
later age than other members of the family; develop- 
mental history in other ways was entirely negative. 
Not until a year previously was it known that the boy 
had defective vision in one eye. As for his education, 
he had been sent to the very best of private schools ; he 
had been tried three times in the public schools, but 
was always unable to succeed there. The boy himself 
said that he liked arithmetic pretty well, but could never 
succeed in it, and that he "never was any good" in his- 
tory or grammar. 

No doubt this boy would be at great disadvantage 
everywhere in the ordinary classroom when competing 
with students who have no special disabilities. Defective 
vision could hardly have been the important factor, for 
such tests as the association and other language tests 
would not have been affected thereby. If he required 
much more time to perform mental operations than the 
average child, of course he would naturally be regarded 
as quite unable to do many things on which he failed, 
not through lack of real capacity, but because of the 
insufficient time allowed him. 

Whether much might have been done to stimulate 
this boy and train him so that he could think more quickly 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 149 

is an interesting question, but one we cannot answer. 
We are sure that the ordinary schoolroom emphasizes 
the time of the reactions as well as accuracy, and this is, 
doubtless, as it should be. Where, however, there is a 
particular lack of ability to react promptly, what can 
be done to improve the situation? Ought a person of 
whom this slowness is characteristic to be taught under 
the same conditions that succeed with the ordinary child ? 
If no allowance is made for the mental peculiarity, can 
one expect the child to develop without discouragements 
that must impede his progress all the more? It is evi- 
dent that retardation under ordinary school methods is 
inevitable. The results of falling back would be likely 
to be much more serious in producing depression and 
discouragement in the case of a person really normal 
than would be true if there were general mental defect. 
Sensibilities and emotions being as in the ordinary in- 
dividual, consequences might be disastrous indeed. 

In the case of Arthur we felt that it was sound advice 
to suggest that he be trained for an occupation that re- 
quires no swift reactions. Some types of manufacturing 
or of laboratory work, or, still better, agriculture in any 
one of its diverse forms, would be suitable as a life work. 
In some such pursuit his really good intelligence would 
be likely to lead to success. 

DEFECTS IN PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES 

Individual differences in sensory and perceptual powers 
are clearly shown by many experiments with various 
problems in these fields. Discrimination of weight, color, 
form, length of line, etc., have been studied, as well as 
many other types of tactile, visual, auditory, and other 
perceptions. Capacity in these processes, from whatever 
standpoint they are considered, varies greatly. Disability 



150 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

extreme enough to be denominated a defect refers in this 
discussion, of course, to conditions that do not rest on 
the basis of defective sensory organs, but are due .to some 
lack of functioning in the central nervous system. 

From the practical standpoint such defects are of vital 
significance in relation to the activities of everyday life, 
where perceptual discriminations of all sorts are con- 
stantly demanded. But the fact is that in spite of much 
experimentation we do not know the thresholds below 
which disability in perceptual powers, auditory, visual, 
or for stimuli of other types, becomes important as condi- 
tioning failure in educational and vocational life. The 
correlation between such defects, more or less extreme, 
and mental activities, such as the school subjects and 
industrial occupations represent, have been, as yet, 
little studied and are almost undetermined. But that 
such defective powers lie at the root of some school and 
vocational failures we have learned from experience. 

Only the following case-history is cited, because defects 
in visual and auditory perceptions have been dealt with 
under other headings; this case presents disability in 
other perceptions. 

Case 29. Agnes Z., 8 years old, was brought from an 
eastern city for study because it had already been found 
that she could not be taught by ordinary methods. She 
had been tried in the public schools, but without success, 
and her parents very wisely recognized that in order to 
succeed with her, they ought to know her problem and 
learn the best methods of coping with it. 

In spite of the reported difficulty in learning, we found 
on psychological examination that this girl could not 
be regarded as an out-and-out mental defective ; by the 
Bmet scale she was just one year retarded, but this meant 
little that was helpful in understanding her mental 
make-up. The interesting fact revealed by Binet and 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 151 

even more clearly by other tests was the unevenness of 
abilities, for some things were done extremely well and 
others equally as poorly. Young as she was, certain 
results on tests gave clues that could be seen to be most 
important from the standpoint of her further education. 

Sensory discrimination and perceptions were very good 
as related to color, but extremely poor for form and 
relationships of form. Whereas she readily distinguished 
the colors and combined the pieces of a picture puzzle 
test when the picture was a colored one, she had great 
difficulty in doing an analogous task when not assisted 
by the element of color; that is, when she had to rely 
upon form. She was unable to solve even the simpler 
of the construction tests, and she was quite unsuccessful 
in remembering the solution ; she learned to put the 
pieces properly into place only after she had been shown 
how to do so repeatedly. Perceptions of weight were 
very faulty too ; she could not select the heavier of two 
weights, one weighing three, the other twelve grams. 

Although memory for form relationships was so notably 
poor, she had an unusually good rote memory for verbal 
material. She memorized poems rapidly, having, how- 
ever, a great deal of difficulty in giving the meaning of 
the selection. She had learned in the same way number 
combinations, but had not the slightest concept of num- 
ber. She could add a series of digits, but could not 
perform the same steps with stamps or money, nor reason 
on the basis of the number combinations which she knew. 
Her memory for language was far better than her ability 
to use language as a medium of expression. In the one 
case she was rather above her age, as determined by 
psychological tests, and in the others she was quite 
below the standard for her age. 

Her powers of apperception were unusually good. 
She showed quite good common sense for her years, 



152 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

readily grasped the situations presented in various tests, 
and showed normal appreciations of what constitutes 
good social behavior. She interpreted pictures well, 
showing here, too, normal perceptions of colors and ob- 
jects. As for other disabilities, we found that she had 
much trouble with psychomotor control, as indicated by 
tests and by her great difficulty with the writing of letters 
and numbers. 

The results of the training in school work which she 
had received were exceedingly interesting. She could 
read fluently, but had some little difficulty in giving the 
meaning of what she read. She could spell quite well, 
but her writing, as above mentioned, was quite illegible. 
She had acquired quite a little general information and 
much in the way of poetry, which she recited, however, 
in parrot-like fashion. She could add correctly, but 
even this had no real meaning for her. No doubt she 
would not have learned as much as this except for the 
very good individual instruction which was being given 
her. For about a year she had been under the direction 
of a special teacher, but the latter had not undertaken 
to make any definite diagnosis of mentality, basing work 
merely on experience with what was and what was not 
successful. 

The practical problem in this case was to determine 
the educational possibilities and the methods to be em- 
ployed. It will be readily understood that Agnes needed 
a great deal of training in form perception, which prob- 
ably she could obtain less well by working with flat 
surfaces than with solid objects. We advised that she 
learn to use a scroll-saw and develop her perception of 
form by putting together parts of pictures which she 
herself had cut out. Appreciation of form relationships 
needed developing, which could well be done through 
various games. In connection with this, there would 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PKOCESSES 153 

naturally come some special training in motor control. 
Perhaps even her writing would be more improved by 
general training for psychomotor control than by practice 
in that particular activity. Many devices, of course, 
could be employed for this purpose. Then, too, she 
needed to be trained to use language as a medium for 
the expression of her own ideas. For this there are numer- 
ous devices which would give her practice. The ability 
to perceive rational relationships and logical connection 
between things would no doubt develop with more train- 
ing and experience and with increasing maturity of mental 
powers. 

In her school work it is the meaning of what is read 
that should be emphasized, and the number concepts 
brought out that lie back of addition and subtraction 
and the other processes of arithmetic. Rote memory, 
in which she excels, would, of course, be called into play 
constantly, the danger being that she would rely upon it 
too much. It is just such powers that often obscure the 
fact that ideas are not really mastered. By stressing the 
rational phases of activities and leading her to acquire 
an interest in them, no doubt she would develop more 
initiative in regard to work, both in school and out of it. 
Of course, this little girl's naturally good powers in cer- 
tain directions should also be utilized, but they are, in 
general, of such a character that they would always be 
bound to come into play, whereas her disabilities might 
be unrealized simply because facility on the basis of 
memory would carry her along quite well for many pur- 
poses. To know just wherein this girl is lacking and 
where she needs particular help and training ought to 
mean much for the success of her education. Naturally, 
the putting of such advice into practice requires an in- 
telligent and well-trained teacher, one who can appreciate 
the psychological aspects of the case, and who has skill 



154 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

and ingenuity in devising means for applying the prin- 
ciples involved. 

From the intelligent mother we obtained a very good 
account of heredity and developmental conditions. The 
former was entirely negative. There had been some 
antenatal difficulty, the mother not being well during the 
pregnancy. Agnes weighed only three and one half 
pounds at birth and for a long time afterwards was badly 
nourished. At six months she weighed only four or five 
pounds, but by the time she was a year old, nourishing 
food had been found, and she became quite normal in 
weight. She suffered from numerous illnesses; at six 
weeks she had a severe attack of pneumonia, at four 
years she was very ill with measles, and at six years had 
typhoid fever, but made a very good recovery. She did 
not walk or talk until three years old. Dentition was 
late. We found her, at eight years old, physically normal 
in general development, and all examination was negative 
except that she had defective vision which was corrected 
by glasses. 

DEFECTS IN THE HIGHER MENTAL PROCESSES 

Defects in the higher mental processes must be dis- 
cussed, although the presence of such defects leads one 
to doubt whether the individual possessing them can be 
regarded as sufficiently normal mentally to fall within 
the group belonging to our discussion, namely, normal 
individuals with special defect. Powers of apperception, 
reasoning, judgment, mental representation, and foresight, 
are naturally criteria of intelligence to such an extent that 
defects in these aspects of mental life would seem to in- 
dicate subnormality, if not feeble-mindedness. But as a 
matter of fact, there are individuals who lack some one 
of these mental powers, yet who do well in many other 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 155 

tasks not involving the defect. Frequently there is 
great difficulty in deciding whether such an individual 
is normal or subnormal ; many are ultimately designated 
as "border-line." Of course, as we have already stated, 
it must be carefully realized that apperceptions or reason- 
ing power or judgment may be faulty in specialized fields, 
owing to lack of experience which would give the individual 
the data necessary to perform these mental functions. 

Sometimes, however, a person proves that he has normal 
capacity as judged by his social reactions or by the re- 
sults on ordinary mental tests, and yet he may have ex- 
tremely poor ability in some one or more of the so-called 
higher mental powers, even in relation to situations with 
which he is familiar. He may not be keen in reasoning, 
or his judgment may not be good, or he may act without 
prudence and foresight. It is true that extreme disability 
in apperception is often an indication of aberrational 
tendencies, but even normal individuals vary greatly in 
their capacity for sizing up situations. 

While we cannot here cover this topic of our problem 
thoroughly, we cite several cases illustrating defects in 
higher mental powers. Whether the individuals can be 
classified as of normal intelligence may sometimes be 
open to question, but though they have such clearly seen 
defects, they likewise have such striking abilities in many 
other fields that they are more properly placed in this 
chapter than in the later one devoted to subnormal in- 
dividuals with special abilities. 

Mental representation: In the case given below, very 
poor results were attained on many tasks, results which 
we believe may be explained by extreme disability in 
powers of mental representation. Discussing the place of 
this mental trait, Healy says, " The ability to represent in 
terms of various imageries a given situation to oneself, 
and to revolve it over in the mind, seeing its different 



156 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

parts, and mentally commenting on their comparisons 
and relationships, is one of the most valuable of human 
faculties." 1 

Case 30. The defective power of mental representation 
is here coupled with great lack in visual imagery. 

Leonard B., 17 years, 11 months old, was brought us 
for study by his mother, a very intelligent woman, be- 
cause he was not succeeding in school work. He had 
been attending school since six years old. He had had 
tutors at various times, some of them very good teachers, 
"but they never made anything of him." In spite of 
having had private instruction for an entire year, in the 
hope of preparing him for high school, the boy was not 
able to maintain his position in the seventh grade. He 
was not a delinquent, but his family had supplied him 
with many wholesome interests which had done much 
to prevent a growth of harmful tendencies. 

The psychological examination presented a most com- 
plex problem, for the results in general were exceedingly 
irregular, many tests being done very well, and others, 
readily performed by much younger children, were in 
some instances poorly done and in others complete failures. 
The problem here becomes one for analysis. We must 
try to find, if possible, what mental processes are involved 
in the successes and failures in order to determine if they 
throw any light on the boy's inability to progress at 
school. 

Analysis of successful records shows that Leonard did 
very well on tests with concrete material, that his per- 
ceptions of form and form relationships were normal, or 
above. He succeeded on construction tests, working 
promptly and understandingly. Once such problems 
were solved, he gained by his own experience; he per- 
formed them the second time much more rapidly, showing 
1 Healy, William. "The Individual Delinquent." 1914. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 157 

that he had grasped the principles involved and that he 
remembered them. He showed, too, ability to reason 
concerning any problems thus presented, solving them by 
rational, planful methods. Psychomotor control was 
likewise good ; in all phases of manual work he had un- 
usually good ability. By Binet tests he graded as normal, 
and on school work he had no difficulty with reading and 
writing. He talked well concerning things in which he 
was interested and had distinctly good apperceptions, 
both as required on tests and regarding his own disabilities. 
The tests on which he failed seemed on the surface to 
be quite unlike each other. They were those to test 
powers of mental analysis and mental representation, 
ability to form new associations between arbitrary sym- 
bols, ability to follow directions after the experimenter 
has shown the steps of the process, as in the instructions 
box. Results on tests for memory indicated variability 
in the different aspects ; rote memory for auditory pres- 
entations was normal, auditory memory for logical 
material could scarcely be considered either exceptionally 
good or poor; about two thirds of the passage was re- 
called. But visual memory was astonishingly poor. The 
boy could not draw from memory a simple figure seen 
over and over again, nor could he make a recognizable 
representation of so simple an object as an ink bottle. 
Having been shown the figure used in the cross line test, 
consisting of two parallel vertical lines and two parallel 
horizontal lines, he could not draw the figure correctly. 
In the adult Binet tests where mental representation is 
required, as for example in reconstructing the triangles, 
Leonard failed completely. Almost all work in arithmetic 
was quite beyond his ability. He could add and subtract 
correctly, but he could neither multiply nor divide ; and 
the addition of fractions was a complete failure. More 
striking still was the fact that in very simple problems 



158 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

he could state the reasoning required in the solution, but 
could not carry out the process. Thus, given such an 
example as, If one dozen apples cost fifty-four cents, how 
much will eight apples cost ? he quickly said, " You must 
find the cost of one and then get eight times that amount," 
yet he could not give the answer. In continuous sub- 
traction, taking seven from one hundred orally, he made 
six errors. On other school work it was found that his 
spelling was poor and his knowledge of geography slight. 
Comparing now the failures and successes, we are at 
once impressed by the contrast presented. Inability to 
handle the abstract as compared with his successful 
achievements with concrete material is striking. In an 
effort to explain the poor records made on various tests, 
let us analyze still further the functions required. Is 
one justified in concluding that the great lack, as seen in 
the case of this boy, is the power of mental representation ? 
It would seem as though his failure in tasks apparently 
very different might indicate a lack of ability to represent 
to himself mentally, either in visual or other form, the 
successive steps in a process. His inability to follow 
directions when six or seven steps are demanded, and 
his failure on such a test as that for continuous subtrac- 
tion, might both be due to a lack of ability in mental 
representation. There is, too, obvious defect in visual 
memory which may be a large feature in his inability to 
represent to himself the task in hand, particularly when 
the transformation into terms other than visual is diffi- 
cult. This might account for his failure in spelling, 
where he shows difficulty in mental representation of 
words which had been presented to him probably in their 
visual form, and his inaccuracy in geography could be 
accounted for in the same way. The latter, we note, was 
never presented to him except by the usual methods, that 
is, by the use of flat maps interpreted largely in visual 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 159 

terms and appealing to memory through visual represen- 
tation. 

No facts of significance regarding heredity were ob- 
tained from the intelligent mother, whose account, no 
doubt, was altogether reliable. Developmental history 
was negative. There were only mild illnesses, and no 
physical disabilities of any kind were noted at the time 
of our examination. 

Considering Leonard's distinct disability for handling 
abstractions and his equally distinct ability in working 
with concrete material, it seems reasonable to infer that 
the methods of instruction which had been employed in 
his case had not been adapted to his mental make-up. 
His training should have been largely along manual lines. 
No doubt he might have succeeded well in any of the 
practical applied sciences which involve the use of ma- 
chinery or other kind of apparatus. Even the ordinary 
school work might have been mastered with a far greater 
degree of success had the presentations been through 
concrete means. Indeed, we are sure of this from the 
results of teaching geography to Leonard for a couple of 
months along the lines we prescribed. He acquired 
" more than he had learned in his whole life before." 

Perceptions of relationship: Some psychologists have 
included in their enumeration of the various mental 
processes the group of functions designated as feelings 
or perceptions of relationship. In general we may dis- 
tinguish between objective relationships, such as those 
of space and form, and subjective relationships, such 
as likeness, equality, cause and effect, and other logical 
relations. It is quite possible that defects may exist in 
either one or the other and even in both these subdivisions. 
If there can be specialized defect for time sense, as seems 
likely from the peculiarities noted in cases of aberration 
where time orientation is often exceedingly poor, for in- 



160 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

stance, in Korsakow's syndrome, we should say that it 
is a specialized defect in the realm of perception of objec- 
tive relationships. The same conclusion would be true 
in regard to a possibly defective sense of form. In contra- 
distinction, defects concerning subjective relationships 
would affect reasoning, and, indeed, all logical thinking. 

Case 31. In the following case is seen defect for per- 
ceptions of relationship, both objective and subjective; 
we find here inability to perceive relationships as they 
exist in both concrete and abstract problems. 

Julian M., 14 years of age, often a truant and a great 
mischief maker in school, was studied on the mental side 
with much care, because of the great irregularities that 
were found in the results on different tests. The boy's 
educational advantages had been good. He had been 
in several public schools and more recently in an expensive 
private school, known for its thoroughness and successful 
achievements. 

Judged by general intelligence tests the boy graded as 
normal; he passed through the twelve-year Binet tests 
without any failures. In school subjects he was up to 
grade in reading, writing, and spelling. No unusual 
features were detected in any of these subjects. He did 
well on the test for learning ability as evidenced in form- 
ing associations between arbitrary symbols. Memory 
processes were normal, both for rote and logical material. 
He was able to follow directions, making quite a good 
record on special tests for this, nor had he any difficulty 
with tests for analysis and mental representation where 
the relationships were explicitly shown him. 

On the other hand, he failed badly on all other tests 
requiring perceptions of relationship, either in abstractions 
or in the concrete. He showed poor powers of reasoning 
and little foresight when the latter was a factor in tests, 
and his apperceptive ability, as gauged in the laboratory, 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 161 

was notably poor for a boy of his age. He did not succeed 
in solving the simplest puzzles which require recognition 
of relationships of form. On tests presented in concrete 
form he used purely random methods. Thus, in the 
opening of the so-called puzzle box his record was ex- 
tremely poor; he studied the box a long time, quite 
unable to plan any mode of procedure, finally adopting 
a method that was purely trial and error. Indeed, he 
made many errors which reason or even quick perception 
would have made impossible. On the pictorial completion 
test the errors made were significant not only because of 
their number, but even more because of their type. He 
showed great lack of ability to select pieces which bore 
sensible relationships to the incidents depicted in this 
test. He played a poor game of checkers, taking no ad- 
vantage of obvious chances, although he maintained he 
had played this game frequently. He did not grasp the 
principle of the code test until elaborate explanations 
were given, after which he was able to cope with the 
test fairly well. Not only was he poorly informed, but 
events were poorly placed and quite unrelated in time. 
Thus, he informed us that the fourth of July was cele- 
brated as Washington's birthday ; that Lincoln, who was 
a president of the United States about one hundred years 
ago, lived during the Revolutionary War. Asked regard- 
ing the capitol of this country, he replied, " The capitol of 
Chicago is the White House." 

On school subjects he was exceedingly deficient in 
arithmetic, although in this he had been given much 
training. He added four-place numbers correctly, but 
very slowly. He failed entirely on an example in long 
division. He had been studying fractions for some time 
at school and was having drill in them at the time we 
saw him, yet he failed on the simplest examples of this 
type. Nor did he succeed better when reasoning prob- 



162 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

lems were assigned him; thus, he could not tell how 
much three and one half pounds would cost if two and 
one half pounds cost forty-five cents. This was true in 
spite of the fact that the school which he was then at- 
tending stressed number work particularly. 

His disability in the perception of relationships, in 
apperception, and reasoning would hardly seem to ac- 
count for his failure in arithmetic on the rote side, but 
back of this might have existed an unusual difficulty in 
acquiring the concept of number, due to his general de- 
fect for appreciating relationships. Certain it is that in 
spite of very good instruction of the usual kind, he has 
learned comparatively little in this field. What he might 
have gained, had there been a recognition of his peculiar 
mental make-up, is a matter of conjecture. One wonders 
what the results might have been had a special effort been 
made to have him acquire the concept of number by con- 
crete experience, emphasizing the idea of relationship. 
Had the underlying principles been grasped, perhaps his 
good memory powers would then have been of great 
assistance in this realm as elsewhere. 

In their bearing on behavior, Julian's disabilities were 
exceedingly important. This boy's family had decided 
that he should become an accountant. They were keep- 
ing him in an expensive school with this in view, yet it 
was just this type of work which was most difficult for 
him; indeed, it was practically impossible for him to 
do it well. On his part there was intense dislike of school, 
which, no doubt, was a factor in the truancy and incorrigi- 
bility for which he was noted. Furthermore, this lack of 
understanding on the part of his family led to irritation 
at home. 

It may be difficult to determine what type of employ- 
ment this boy is best fitted for; however that may be, 
we can readily reach the negative conclusion that for 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 163 

some types of work he is undoubtedly not suited. Of 
course, he was but fourteen when we saw him and was 
in need of further education, but here, too, the problem 
arises as to the methods and subjects by which he would 
profit most. No doubt, it would require much ingenuity 
to plan in detail a course of study for this boy, but, on 
the other hand, it would be quite worth while, both for 
him and for any educator who wished to learn more con- 
cerning some intricate, but very practical problems of 
pedagogy. 

Other Disabilities: The above presentation does not 
include all possible mental disabilities, partly because in 
the present state of limited knowledge this can not be 
done. Among school subjects has been omitted the 
group of informational studies, such as history and geog- 
raphy, because it is evident that the mental traits in- 
volved in learning these subjects are those that have 
already been considered. 

Some mental processes have already been discussed in 
connection with the more complex activities in which 
they are elements. Thus, in presenting defects in number 
work, as well as defects in reading, I have noted poor 
powers of auditory perceptions, defective auditory mem- 
ory, especially for numbers, defective visual memory, 
extreme inability to form arbitrary associations, and 
defects in powers of analysis and synthesis. It would be 
just as logical, though probably not as helpful, to have 
discussed these processes just here, but certainly there is 
no need to retrace the same ground. Certain mental func- 
tions not yet enumerated must be mentioned, however. 

First, in regard to attention. Defects in this aspect of 
mental life will not be illustrated ; attention is a function 
of general applicability and a factor in all performance. 
As already indicated earlier, in the chapter on Differ- 
ential Diagnosis, poor powers of concentration and applica- 



164 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

tion frequently are concomitants of physical and nervous 
disorders. Then, too, attention varies so largely with the 
interest that is felt in various subjects that it is difficult to 
interpret lack of it seen in the laboratory as a real defect. 

Distractibility may be studied by tests designed for the 
purpose, or judgment may be based upon general ob- 
servations. In either case it can only be stated that in- 
attention was noted at such and such times and for such 
and such work. Teachers often render the verdict that 
a child is progressing unsatisfactorily, not because of 
general dullness, but because of inability to "pay atten- 
tion." There are two cautions necessary in such inter- 
pretations; on the one hand, the inattention may not 
be as evident on the playground or elsewhere as in the 
schoolroom, that is, the difficulty may not be with atten- 
tion, but with interest. In the second place, sometimes 
the verdict is altogether false, and the child is inattentive 
because he is an out-and-out mental defective. We have 
known more than one instance of such erroneous judgment. 
Here the lack of attention is only the natural consequence 
of inability to participate in the schoolroom activities, 
and is not in any sense evidence of a specialized defect. 
Hence the greatest care is necessary in reaching a diagnosis 
regarding defect in powers of attention and persistence. 1 

Nor have individual differences which may exist in 
artistic endeavors been touched upon. From everyday 
experience one can hardly doubt that there are extreme 
variations in these fields; whether we are dealing with 

1 Studies dealing with the problem of attention are too numerous to 
mention in detail. However, the reader might here be referred to a 
discussion of the entire question by Alfred Mann. ("Zur Psychologie 
und Psychographie der Aufmerksamkeit." Zeitschrift fur Angewandte 
Psychologie, Vol. 8, 1914.) This author presents a detailed analysis 
of the factors that enter into attention and offers an elaborate psycho- 
gram for use in the study of aDy individual's powers of attention. While 
he refers to adults, the plan is possible for the study of attention in chil- 
dren of school age. 



SPECIAL DEFECTS IN MENTAL PROCESSES 165 

drawing, painting, dancing, singing, or instrumental 
music, the range extends from the talented to those ex- 
ceedingly incapable. While unusual gifts in any of the 
arts is a matter of great practical significance, defects 
lead to maladjustments that are not often brought to 
the clinical psychologist for aid. 1 

Defects in imagination and inventive ability also are 
exceedingly complex, and while defects in these powers 
no doubt lead to important consequences, little is known 
of the practical implications other than common-sense 
conclusions. There are few tests with established norms, 
and experience has not enabled us to make any definite 
generalizations. These powers are so interwoven with 
mental representation, foresight, and other processes 
already mentioned, that they are difficult to differentiate. 

While individual differences in learning ability are 
found, some people learning very much more readily 
than others, the term "learning ability" is too inclusive 
to allow any general distinctions to be helpful. Extreme 
defect in learning ability, — or rather defect beyond a 
certain degree, — is an indication of general defect or 
feeble-mindedness. Consideration of defects in learning 
ability for special types of material leads to the very 
problems that have been discussed throughout this book. 
The author's general point of view may best be stated by 
saying that defect in learning ability rests upon inadequate 
functioning of specific mental processes, and that to dis- 
cover which process or processes are at fault is the crux 
of the problem of specialized defect. 

1 While it is hardly in place to cite the literature concerning the arts, 
it may be mentioned that quite a good deal of experimentation has been 
carried on in the field of music. There are the studies of Seashore 
("The Measurement of a Singer", Science, February, 1912) and of 
Hans Rupp (" t)ber die Prufung Musikalischer Fahigkeiten." Zeitschrift 
fiir angewandte Psychologie, Vol. 9, 1915), who has discussed in detail, 
methods for testing recognition of pitch, intervals, melody, harmony, 
time, rhythm, etc. 



CHAPTER VIII 
Defects in Mental Control 

The psychological elements in the background of volun- 
tary reactions can be quite clearly analyzed. In general, 
control of actions is dependent upon control of the mental 
states leading to actions. Both emotions and ideas have 
a very vital relationship to behavior. Almost all emo- 
tions tend to arouse action, while the chief restraining 
forces lie in the realm of ideas. Without entering into 
any discussion of vexed points concerning "the will", 
it may fairly be said that defective powers of control of 
actions may be due, on the one hand, to inability to re- 
press the feelings, that is, to lack of emotional control; 
and, on the other, to failure to arouse inhibiting ideas. 
From this it may be seen that defective power of control 
involves both emotional and ideational or volitional 
aspects of mental life. 

The practical issues with which we are here concerned 
are recognition of the existence of this type of defect 
and of the need that arises for adjustment of social con- 
ditions to meet the responses that such defect calls forth. 
For, though the general topic of inhibition finds a place 
in most textbooks on psychology, a rather minor place 
it must be acknowledged, and though some practical 
workers have recognized the lack of normal powers of 
inhibition as a situation with which to reckon, yet the 
fact that defect in control may be an innate characteris- 
es 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTEOL 167 

tic has received almost no recognition by psychologists, 
nor is it appreciated by many who deal intimately with 
human beings. 

A moment's reflection should convince any one that 
special defect in control of actions is a phenomenon no 
more peculiar than is disability of any other type. The 
power to awaken inhibiting ideas and to keep such 
thoughts in the foreground of consciousness so that they 
may become effective, is a power as truly characteristic 
of mental life as is the capacity for recalling past experi- 
ence or for performing any other mental function. Then, 
too, there are, no doubt, inborn differences in the inten- 
sity of the emotions as well as in the capacity for resist- 
ing emotions, impulses, and desires. Situations appar- 
ently the same are in reality quite unlike for different 
people, arousing feelings so varied and of such different 
degrees of intensity that the reactions arising there- 
from represent necessity for widely varying degrees of 
control. 

Davenport has called individuals showing such defect 
in powers of control "the feebly inhibited", under which 
caption he has included three groups ; those who display 
violent temper, 1 those of a hyper- or of a hypo-kinetic 
temperament, and those who have a tendency towards 
nomadism. 2 His interest lies chiefly in determining the 
heritability of such characteristics and the modes of their 
inheritance. The general explanation of all these so-called 
types of uncontrolled behavior, according to this author, 
is "possibly a paralysis of the inhibitory mechanism/ ' 
These findings cannot here be reviewed critically; that 

1 Davenport, G. B., "The Feebly Inhibited: Violent Temper and 
Its Inheritance." Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, September, 
1915. 

2 Davenport, C. B., "The Feebly Inhibited: Nomadism or the 
Wandering Impulse with Special Reference to Heredity." "Carnegie 
Institute Publication". 536. 



168 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

would carry us too far afield ; but his studies of the sub- 
ject have strengthened Healy's contention that there are 
individuals who show innate defects in mental control. 

What the inhibitory mechanism, the neural basis of 
inhibition, may be is discussed in all textbooks dealing 
with physiological psychology. The general opinion is 
that nervous impulses are converted into inhibition as 
truly as into other types of action, for action is restraint 
as well as movement. " In the mental world, we may sup- 
pose that the action of the nervous system may be to 
check as well as to arouse a sensation or idea. . . . We 
are men and not brutes because the neurons concerned 
with the ideational and moral life keep in subjection and 
counteract the direct impulses to action of the neurones 
concerned with greed, lust, cruelty, and hatred. We 
reason and do not simply day-dream, because we can 
check foolish, irrelevant fancies — can inhibit all ideas 
that do not lead on to the desired goal." 1 In thinking, 
at least in purposive thinking, we inhibit and eliminate 
unfit thoughts; we select and reject in accord with a 
purpose. 

Whether or not it is some flaw in the neural mechanism 
that accounts for defects in mental control and whatever 
theories of inheritance of feeble inhibition may prove 
true, the fact remains that the problems which arise in 
the case of individuals defective in control are extremely 
practical. Those who have dealt extensively with delin- 
quents are familiar with the characteristics of this type 
of individual, their inability to resist temptations, their 
extreme bad temper, angry threats, and violent reac- 
tions. 2 

Following are some examples illustrating this kind of 
defect : 

1 Thorndike, E. L., "The Elements of Psychology." 1905. 

2 For further discussion, see Healy, "The Individual Delinquent." 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 169 

Case 32. Social reactions and mental tests both clearly 
reveal defective powers of control in the case of this 
girl, otherwise quite normal mentally and physically. 

Alice J., 13i years old, was brought to us by her mother, 
who stated that she was having a great deal of difficulty 
in controlling the girl. The mother herself proved to be 
a very intelligent woman of good judgment and much 
force of character. She gave a fairly good account of 
heredity and developmental history, as well as of the 
troubles which she had experienced with her daughter. 

The problem which Alice presented was entirely one 
of behavior. She had a good record for scholarship, 
but her deportment had been so objectionable that she 
had been expelled from school three times. She was said 
to be quarrelsome with the children and extremely rest- 
less in class. In each of the schools she attended — she 
had been changed frequently — she had been a source 
of much trouble because of her peculiarly mischievous 
actions. All together she proved so annoying that the 
public schools refused to accept her again, and she was 
even refused the use of one of the city playgrounds. 
Her mother complained that Alice's erraticism was 
extreme. She would leave home and ask any stranger 
that she met for carfare or ask to be taken to a theatre. 
On one occasion she had visited a friend and while left 
alone in the room had opened a desk and read the papers 
which it contained. The family complained that the 
evenings at home were almost intolerable because of this 
girl's restlessness and because they never could count 
upon what she was going to do next. She had almost a 
mania for dressing herself up and acting a part. In the 
mother's own words, "Alice dresses up so frequently and 
changes about so much that it has gotten on the nerves 
of the whole family." She never remained interested in 
any one thing for long; if she began to embroider she 



170 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

would soon stop to begin something else in which she 
would be interested for equally as short a time. 

Alice was said to be unlike any member of the family. 
The heredity, so far as we could learn, was negative. 
There was said to be no mental trouble of any kind. 
Special effort was made in this instance to discover any 
facts regarding the family history which might have a 
bearing upon the situation. Both parents had always 
been healthy, except that the mother was greatly worried 
during this pregnancy because of financial reverses that 
her husband suffered. For more than a month she was 
in bed then because of some sort of exhaustion, but we 
were unable to obtain any accurate diagnosis of what 
this trouble was. The two older sisters, already married 
when we saw Alice, were said to be bright and normal in 
every way, and a younger brother of nine had the repu- 
tation of being one of the brightest boys in the school 
he attended. There had been no difficulties of conduct 
with them. 

The later developmental history regarding Alice was 
negative. She was said never to have been severely ill. 
When an infant she had fallen and struck her head, but 
was said not to have been unconscious. There was, how- 
ever, history of very frequent enuresis continued until 
she was eleven or twelve years old. Our examination 
revealed little of significance. There were no signs of 
nervous disturbance. The girl was normally developed 
and well nourished. There were no sensory defects of 
any kind. The mother insisted that the lack of self- 
control was already noticeable when Alice was only 
three years of age. 

The psychological examination showed numerous pecul- 
iarities, both on test results and on incidental reactions. 
We soon were convinced that Alice had quite good innate 
ability. The simpler tests which could be done rapidly 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 171 

were done correctly. Construction tests were solved by 
trial and error method. She showed little deliberation 
before beginning a test, starting pell-mell, trying almost 
anything, but showing a capacity to profit by her own 
errors. The record on the apperception tests was nor- 
mal, and she did the learning tests readily. The poorest 
results were obtained on the tapping test, where very 
defective psychomotor control was shown. Either she 
worked very slowly, or when an effort was made to in- 
crease speed many errors were made. On memory tests 
there was quite a difference between those for rote mem- 
ory and logical passages. The former were done quite 
well, the latter very poorly. It was evident that this was 
due to poor powers of attention and lack of steadiness of 
purpose. Many of the items were omitted, many changes 
were made, and there was no adherence to logical se- 
quence. In school work she was fairly well advanced, 
showing ability to do well the work of the seventh grade. 
More striking than test results was her behavior on the 
several occasions when we ourselves had an opportunity 
to observe her. In the laboratory Alice was never quiet 
long. She handled constantly any of the material with- 
in reach, and was playing with one thing or another 
incessantly. She showed extreme curiosity, but even 
this wavered ; before she had examined any one object 
thoroughly she had already picked up something else. 
This poor control in attention was evident in test work 
too ; in the beginning she would look at the examiner, 
apparently paying very close attention, but sometimes, 
when half through a task, her mind seemed to wander 
and she centered her attention on something else. On 
the emotional side she was equally uncontrolled. Once 
during the testing she grasped the examiner quite con- 
vulsively and began to sob, explaining this by the fact 
that a question asked her had recalled some unpleasant 



172 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

experience. A moment later she was laughing in regard 
to some other idea which had been suggested to her. 

Dismissed from the room for a few moments while 
her mother was being consulted, she came back crying 
because she had seen a little girl who had no mother. 
She wanted immediately to take this girl home. Soon, 
however, she was laughing, quite forgetful of her new 
friend's bad fortune. Later we were informed that while 
she was out of the room she had investigated all the cabi- 
nets in the outer office, had walked down the hall of the 
building in which the laboratory is situated, talking to 
every one she met. We ourselves soon witnessed her in- 
ordinate curiosity and her uncontrolled manner of inves- 
tigating everything in her vicinity; she peered into the 
desk and other places, sitting still for only a minute or 
two at a time. In her conversation she was rather 
flighty, giving statements that were not to be relied upon. 
She told us that her parents were Protestant and imme- 
diately after said they were not. 

We were unable to find any hidden conflict or worry. 
In spite of her forward manner and extreme friendliness 
in approaching strangers she had not met with any bad 
experiences, and whatever she had heard from bad com- 
panions left her mind as fast as it entered, according to 
the mother, with whom Alice seemed to have a very nice 
and confidential relationship. 

We have here, then, a girl normal as regards intelli- 
gence, but decidedly defective in self-control. In every 
way she shows her lack in normal powers of inhibition. 
Her mental processes seem totally uncontrolled, her 
word is unreliable, she will say anything that comes 
into her mind. As for her emotions, they are volatile, 
changing from moment to moment, and thoroughly un- 
stable. Her behavior at school and at home clearly 
indicates the fact that the girl acts upon any impulse 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 173 

that presents itself. She does not inhibit these even 
when they lead to conduct which she knows will injure 
her. In spite of coming from a cultured home, the girl 
was poorly informed and showed a paucity of mental 
interests, the lack quite possibly being the result of her 
flighty mental processes. Taking into account the his- 
tory given by the mother and the officer who knew the 
case well, the observations of her general behavior, her 
conversation, and her work on psychological tests, one 
could only conclude that this was a case of defect in mental 
control, and that there was no evident physical basis 
for it. 

The seriousness of this defect and the social signifi- 
cance of it are very apparent. Such a girl might easily 
get into any kind of trouble on the city streets. Her 
behavior is so unaccountable, she is so much the victim 
of her own impulses, that it would be impossible to pre- 
dict what might or might not occur. Only one of two 
things offer themselves in such a case : The girl could be 
placed in a special institution for nervous children where 
her environment would be controlled and where perhaps 
she could be given good discipline, or the parents would 
have to endeavor to exert this discipline themselves, 
aiding her in every way to acquire self-control. In this 
instance the mother was a very capable woman and a 
good disciplinarian. It was advised that the family 
move out to the suburbs, where it would be quieter and 
safer for the girl, and that the mother keep close watch 
over her. It seemed quite possible that with advancing 
age and her own better understanding of the problem, 
the girl might develop stronger powers of inhibition. 

Since we first studied this case we have received fre- 
quent reports. The erratic type of behavior has not 
altogether ceased, but gradually there has been improve- 
ment, and now, after a lapse of two years, Alice has 



174 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

entered high school and has a fair record there. She is 
said to be still quite uncontrolled, and her word is not 
regarded as altogether reliable, but her peculiar reactions 
are less extreme, and she is becoming more conscious of 
their import and making an effort to control herself 
better. 

Case 33. Here defect in control of actions rests prob- 
ably on an unstable nervous organization due to many 
early illnesses. In this case lack of mental control is 
plainly shown on tests. 

Morgan G., 14 years old, had been brought to us with 
a query as to what could be done for the boy. The offi- 
cer who was interested in the case felt that he would not 
be accepted again in school, since his record there had 
been so unsatisfactory. He was said by his teachers to 
be extremely troublesome. He was restless, into petty 
mischief, and so flighty and erratic in his general be- 
havior that some teachers had considered him feeble- 
minded. He had only reached the third grade. It was 
reported that he did no work in school unless constantly 
watched. For a short period after leaving school he had 
tried to get employment, but employers would not keep 
him. They said that the boy was erratic and exceedingly 
talkative, and too uncontrolled in his general behavior. 
While Morgan had never been an extreme delinquent, 
yet he had proven troublesome everywhere. The mother 
made the same type of complaint regarding him, but she 
herself was compelled to work away from home all day 
and probably had never exercised very good oversight or 
discipline. 

In regard to heredity, very little was known about the 
boy's father or the father's family. The father had died 
before this child was born, and the mother had never 
even met her husband's relatives. As for her family, 
there was no history of any mental trouble, except that, of 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 175 

fourteen siblings, one developed epilepsy and later in- 
sanity. 

The mother had not been well during the pregnancy, 
and when the child was born instruments were used, and 
the head was much marked. The mother maintained 
that a scar was visible until he was about ten years old, 
but no indications of any head injury were apparent at 
the time of our physical examination. As a baby he was 
sickly, had marasmus, and weighed only seven pounds 
when thirteen months old. He had frequent convulsions 
from the first to the tenth month but none later. He 
suffered from many illnesses, pneumonia three times, 
measles, diphtheria, and whooping cough. He first walked 
and talked when between two and three years old. 

When we saw the boy we found him to have several 
poor physical conditions, though his general development 
was good, and he was well nourished. His vision was 
somewhat defective, tonsils were moderately enlarged, 
there was a severe valvular lesion with slight enlarge- 
ment of the heart. There were no nervous disorders of 
any kind. He had bright eyes and quite normal expres- 
sion. 

Mental examination was interesting and significant. 
In the laboratory Morgan's general characteristics, as 
given by his teacher, his mother, and the probation offi- 
cer, were quite apparent. He seemed restless, ever on 
the alert, anxious to begin a test before complete direc- 
tions had been given, persistent in his efforts for a short 
time, and then unable to give very close attention. 
Where tests particularly required good mental control 
he had much difficulty, and, once confused regarding the 
solution of a problem, he became hopelessly lost. There 
was a very marked difference in the performance of tests 
of different types. He did all the Binet tests through 
twelve years satisfactorily and without any trouble, 



176 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

showing on these and other tests that he was normal in 
his general ability. The more difficult construction test 
was done without any trouble, whereas in doing the 
simpler one he became much confused and failed entirely 
to solve it. When, however, it was given him again 
about an hour later, he solved it immediately by a very 
rational process. We found nothing peculiar in his mem- 
ory processes nor in his general powers of apperception. 
On the other hand, all tests for mental control were 
performed poorly. He showed extreme difficulty in the 
control of his verbal associations ; in giving the opposites 
to simple words the time varied considerably from word 
to word. Again, on the continuous subtraction test, he 
showed even more strikingly this characteristic lack of 
mental control. He was utterly unable to subtract 
seven continuously from one hundred, although able to 
perform much more difficult work than this in written 
arithmetic of the ordinary type. When endeavoring to 
subtract by fours from forty-one he began very well, but 
after a few seconds he found it so difficult to keep his 
mind upon the problem that he made most absurd fail- 
ures and eventually had to subtract by ones, counting 
backwards until he had subtracted four numbers. Doing 
this, he made no error in subtraction until he reached the 
number twenty-five, after which he said "four from 
twenty-five is twenty, four from twenty is twenty- 
eight", and no one other combination after this was 
correct. He realized that he was incorrect, but in spite 
of an effort to do better he steadily grew worse. Nor 
did the boy show good psychomotor control. In the tap- 
ping test he was both slow and inaccurate. 

As for his school work, we found that he was able to do 
long division, that he wrote simple sentences quite well, 
and could read about a third-grade passage with good 
expression, although in a rather jerky manner. It was 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 177 

quite evident that he was able to master the ordinary 
school subjects, and that the low grade he had reached 
must therefore have been due to the disciplinary features 
of the case. We have no doubt that his defect in con- 
trol of his mental processes interfered very seriously with 
his school life and was also the explanation of his erratic, 
uncontrolled behavior. The boy was not at all vicious. 
He was a friendly lad, who apparently wished to do his 
best and to get on with people, but the peculiarities of 
his mental processes were such that it was difficult for 
him to behave like the average child. 

It can well be imagined that such a boy would present 
a difficult problem in the ordinary classroom. In group 
work with others he would no doubt be the source of a 
good deal of commotion and be regarded by his teachers 
as a nuisance. His very friendliness, coupled with his 
lack of self-control, made him, no doubt, the great talker 
that he was reputed to be. These characteristics would 
be a great handicap in ordinary kinds of employment. 
In most of the positions available in the city, particularly 
such as an uneducated boy could fill, his innate traits 
would be most undesirable. 

We later had a striking example of this boy's typical 
reactions. Upon our recommendation that his eyes and 
throat be examined by specialists he was taken to a 
hospital, where his tonsils were removed. Then he was 
returned to the institution in which we had studied the 
case. The nurse in charge found him a most trying 
patient during his convalescence. He was ever into some 
mischief, was most difficult to keep occupied and quiet, 
and one day having lost her patience, the nurse had re- 
marked — not, of course, seriously — "You are just too 
bad to live, you are such a lot of trouble. " The idea of 
dying having been suggested to the boy, he thereupon 
really endeavored to commit suicide by strangling him- 



178 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

self. From a later conversation with him we learned that 
the boy had not been at all despondent, nor desirous of 
ending his life; the idea of suicide having come to him, 
he did not control or inhibit the thought, but acted speedily 
upon it. 

It is difficult to offer a prognosis in the case of this lad. 
Of course, he should have all the help possible in correc- 
tion of his physical disabilities, and we advised that after 
this was done he be placed at a farm school, where he 
would have some academic training, but where a good 
part of his day would be spent in open-air activities. 
The greatest hope lies in bettering his physical condi- 
tions and in developing his apperceptions of his own 
difficulties, so that he can, and perhaps will, make a 
greater effort to control himself. 

Case 34. We have here an illustration of defective 
powers of inhibition correlated with poor mental and 
psychomotor control as indicated by results on tests. 
In this case the physical conditions were splendid. 

Henry B., 17 years old, had been in the United States 
six or seven years, having come from a country district 
in Austria. He had learned English quite well, had pro- 
gressed satisfactorily at school, and when we knew him 
was in court for the first time. He had been brought to 
us by his parents, who maintained that they could not 
tolerate him at home because of his violent temper. He 
behaved so badly that there had been several complaints 
of disturbance made by the neighbors. His general in- 
corrigibility had increased until recently he had thrown 
his father to the floor and was in the act of beating him 
when the police were called. 

We learned that the boy had been a source of disturb- 
ance in the home for a long time, but he had not been 
guilty of any other type of misconduct than that shown 
there. All complaints had been of the same character, 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 179 

namely, about his exceeding violence, his high temper, 
and his inability to get along with people. Later we 
came to know about this boy's behavior in a very good 
secondary school to which he had been sent. He got in 
various petty troubles with classmates, and finally was 
asked to leave because of his fighting and quarrelsome- 
ness. 

We found this boy to be immensely big and broad 
shouldered, overdeveloped physically and premature in 
sex development. Except for slight tremor of out- 
stretched hands, the physical findings were negative. 

The main characteristic shown on psychological tests 
was his exceeding lack of mental control. Considering 
the fact that he had not attended school in his native 
land, he had done well here in book work. He had com- 
pleted the sixth grade and then had gone to a private 
school, where his record for scholarship was fair enough. 
Noting in detail his work on psychological tests, we found 
that he did construction tests very well. The so-called 
cross line tests for mental analysis were done correctly; 
the pictorial apperception test was also well done, no 
illogical errors being made. He graded as normal on 
Binet tests. His memory powers were good and tests 
for reasoning were likewise satisfactorily performed. 
He followed simple directions well, but made a rather 
poor record on the difficult directions test, where perhaps 
the "catches" were not recognized because the wording 
of them would be quite involved for one whose knowledge 
of English was not particularly good. 

In contradistinction to the number of things on which 
he did well, the results on tests for mental control were 
very poor indeed. The record on the tapping test was 
poor both for speed and accuracy; control of verbal 
associations was notably lacking; the reactions on the 
opposites test were irregular, there were quite a few errors 



180 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

made and the time varied greatly from word to word. 
In the continuous subtraction test numerous peculiarities 
were noted. The more difficult portion, at least where 
the numbers involved are larger, was correctly done, but 
as he went on, the boy became confused and himself 
said, "I get mixed up." In each of three efforts many 
errors were made. 

In his general reactions while working with tests, we 
noted the same lack of control. He was most eager to 
make a good record. He was very talkative while he 
was working, but his remarks were not always relevant. 
He would say one thing when he meant another, correct 
himself, and at times become almost incoherent. Later, 
in telling the story of the troubles which led to his arrest, 
he became quite excited and less coherent than ever. 

Neither the hereditary nor the developmental history 
is well known in regard to Henry, the parents in their 
broken English gave a rather meager account, but the 
type of difficulties in which he has been involved is inter- 
esting in the light of the findings on tests alone. It can 
readily be seen from even our brief statement that, al- 
though this boy is fairly well endowed in intelligence and 
rather unusually well endowed physically, he cannot be 
regarded as altogether normal in regard to his mental 
life. Here the defect is clearly one of control. It seems 
clear that there is distinct relationship between this 
lack of mental control and his social behavior. 

Case 35. The following is an instance of defective 
powers of inhibition where extreme lack of control of the 
emotions is shown, but no abnormal reactions were found 
on tests for mental control. 

Celia K., 17 years old when first seen, had been brought 
into court for sex delinquency. She was held awaiting 
trial, but a short time before it was perceived by all who 
came in contact with her that she was an extremely 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 181 

troublesome girl, difficult to manage. From the super- 
intendent, school teacher, and various attendants came 
similar bad reports. Celia frequently had periods of 
violent temper lasting two or three hours, during which 
she appeared capable of almost any misconduct. On 
one occasion she broke the panel of a door to pieces; 
in the schoolroom she threw articles of furniture about, 
quarreled with the girls, became easily angered, and 
when angry expressed herself in the coarsest of language. 
Following a period of this kind she was generally found 
quivering and white. She herself said that after she had 
been excited and given way to her temper she felt faint 
and weak, that during her excitement she actually did 
not know where she was part of the time. 

Celia showed herself on all occasions to be extremely 
self-willed. She freely acknowledged her own wilfulness, 
and when it was explained to her that her conduct would 
result in injury to her own case, she merely replied she 
did not care what happened to her and that she would 
do as she pleased. In the court room she behaved very 
badly, creating a disturbance by her lack of self-control. 

Later she was sent to a correctional institution for 
girls. There she soon earned a reputation in consonance 
with her earlier behavior and was regarded as being 
insane. Because of this she was returned for further 
study. When discussing the situation with us, she be- 
haved in a most foolish manner, refusing to view the 
matter as anything serious; she laughed and grinned 
much, spoke flippantly and exceedingly volubly. Her 
explanation was that when she liked people and they 
treated her well she got on without trouble, but if any 
one treated her unjustly or harshly she lost all control of 
herself, and said and did things for which she felt herself 
to be hardly accountable. Our own experience showed 
that even her likes were expressed in uncontrolled fashion ; 



182 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

if she took a fancy to a person she would express it in a 
very demonstrative manner. 

Later, after having been released from the institution, 
Celia returned home, but before long proved herself un- 
controllable, became once more involved in sex delin- 
quencies, and was returned to the court. Thereupon 
she was again sent to an institution. For a time things 
went very well, then something occurred which she felt 
was unjust and she fought so strenuously against disci- 
pline that was meted out to her and behaved so tempes- 
tuously that once more she was placed under our obser- 
vation for mental diagnosis. At this time the girl was 
in a very serious mood ; she told us that on her second 
commitment she had resolved to make great efforts to 
behave herself and earn a good record, but in spite of 
earnest endeavor, she failed under unusual stress. 

From her mother we learned that Celia had frequently 
been untruthful and unreliable. She claimed once that 
she was working when this was not true and had invented 
a story altogether fictitious when first arrested. Pre- 
viously she had run away from home without any par- 
ticular provocation. She had always been regarded as 
exceedingly lazy. After leaving school she did not wish 
to work, and earlier, while still attending school, she had 
made little effort to learn. We were never able to obtain 
a school record and do not know whether Celia was a 
disciplinary problem there or not. We know that she 
was not interested in school work, that she took little 
advantage of such educational opportunities as were 
offered her, but this, too, may have been due to her 
general lack of self-control. 

The facts of heredity and family history were not alto- 
gether satisfactorily obtained, for the mother was only 
fairly intelligent and though anxious to cooperate she 
knew little concerning her husband's family. Both 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 183 

parents were foreign born and poorly educated. Celia's 
father had not worked for eleven years. He claimed to 
be ill, but in reality he was probably merely lazy. He 
had been alcoholic previously. The mother, who had 
worked for a number of years in order to support the 
family, was apparently a good woman. We could learn 
of no mental trouble in either family. Celia had walked 
and talked early, had been a healthy child, had suffered 
no illnesses except measles when ten years old. The phys- 
ical examination showed the girl to be exceedingly big 
and strong, a vivacious, active type. Vision was somewhat 
defective, teeth very badly in need of attention, and there 
was a partial nasal occlusion. The girl complained of 
headaches, but we could get no history of any form of 
attacks. She was not over-developed in physical sex 
characteristics. 

As for psychological examination, the results were 
interesting and very definite. As we expected from what 
had been told us, we found that Celia could do little in 
the way of school work. Although born in America, 
she had never attended English-speaking schools, and 
English was not spoken in the home; aside from these 
disadvantages, there was no doubt that she had not 
endeavored to learn and might have gained much more 
from routine school work had she made an effort to do so. 
She understood the fundamental processes of arithmetic, 
but was inaccurate in the use of them. She could write 
only a few simple words and her reading of English was 
exceedingly poor. She failed on the longer words of 
even a first-grade passage ; this may mean little, for she 
had received little training in English. 

On the other hand, she graded as normal by Binet 
tests. She did performance tests quite well and showed 
normal powers of apperception. Even on tests for men- 
tal control the results were good, but it must be remembered 



184 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

that she realized the import of the examination, under- 
standing full well that our verdict regarding her mentality 
would be of vital importance in the disposition of her case. 
In consequence, no doubt, she made a very decided effort. 
Besides this, she was friendly in her attitude towards us, 
believing that we were desirous of helping her. Occa- 
sionally, with all her effort to control her mental processes, 
she would laugh, or rather simper, foolishly during the 
examination. Her powers of psychomotor control were 
not good. 

Here, again, although we have no tests for quantita- 
tive measurement, we know that there was poor emo- 
tional control. Her behavior at home, during detention, 
and even while under special observation, indicated this. 
She herself realized her lack of self-control and was able to 
state very clearly that this was the root of all her trouble. 

When last seen, after her serious difficulty with the 
institutional authorities, Celia's attitude had changed 
greatly. She appreciated the fact that her outbreaks of 
temper led many to consider her aberrational, and that 
some observers had suggested her transfer to a State 
institution for the insane. In consequence she seemed 
very genuine in her intentions to improve her conduct. 
She herself stated that it would be a hard struggle to 
master her temper and impulses, but she hoped that per- 
haps she might succeed in achieving better control. Of 
course, we felt this to be barely possible and yet feared 
that, considering the innate defect, there would be failure 
in spite of good resolutions. 

In such a case as this one can hardly hope for a tremen- 
dous change in reactions, and a favorable prognosis is 
less likely in the light of too few mental interests. Of 
course, Celia is not altogether incapable and even at her 
age new interests might be awakened. Then, her physi- 
cal defects should be attended to, for they may be the 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 185 

cause of some irritation, and, above all, she needs outlets 
for her extreme emotions. She is so big and strong that 
she really requires hard manual work on which to expend 
her energies, and probably farm life away from city 
temptations and offering an opportunity for abundant 
outdoor occupations would give her the best chance of 
mastering herself. 

On the basis of long observation and repeated testing, 
we could never reach the conclusion, suggested by others, 
that Celia was either feeble-minded or insane. Her con- 
versation was altogether too coherent and her self-orien- 
tation and apperception of her own innate defects too 
keen to warrant one in believing that there was any 
aberration. Rather, her conduct had to be explained on 
the basis of innately poor emotional control. 

Case 36. This case is offered because the behavior of 
the girl indicates so clearly the innately defective powers 
of control. 

Julia D. is a girl whom we have seen repeatedly over a 
period of three years. When we first knew her at about 
15 years of age, she was already giving much trouble and 
she has continued to be incorrigible up to the present time. 
She was first brought to the court by her mother, who 
declared the girl could not be controlled at home. On 
several occasions she had run away; she had been ex- 
ceedingly disobedient and quarrelsome. Not until much 
later did the girl become a sex delinquent, but, once hav- 
ing begun this delinquency, she became extreme in it. 
She has been arrested repeatedly. During the three 
years we have known her she has been placed on proba- 
tion several times under different officers, and each one 
of them has felt herself unequal to cope with the girl. 
So undisciplined and uncontrolled is Julia that it has 
been suggested more than once that she must be insane, 
but this, as we shall see later, was shown not to be true. 



186 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Held in detention pending her appearance at court 
her record was exceedingly bad. She had violent spells 
of temper. On one occasion, without any known provo- 
cation, while at the supper table, she threw a cup at 
another girl. At times she refused to eat with the others 
and then later demanded food because she was hungry. 
In the schoolroom she was a source of great annoyance 
and disturbance. If things did not suit her, she would 
throw chairs and other things, and once she lifted a 
chair to strike another girl. There was hardly a person 
in the girl's department with whom she did not fight. 
She was notorious for her use of bad language. 

In the court, where it surely was to her advantage to 
control herself and behave properly, she showed the same 
kind of unfortunate reactions. When a suggestion was 
made which did not meet with her approval, she shrieked, 
threw herself on the floor, and created a terrible scene. 

At the institution for girls to which she was sent she 
exhibited exactly the same traits. She behaved so badly 
that it was felt impossible to keep her there, — a result 
which she may have desired. However, when placed on 
probation with the understanding that if she behaved 
herself properly she would not only be allowed to remain 
at liberty but would be helped to obtain a position, she 
continued her violently delinquent behavior, and it was 
necessary to bring her back into court. At this time it 
was noted that the girl seemed most sincere in her prom- 
ise to try to do better than previously. 

When first examined, Julia was a small and rather 
poorly developed girl; she appeared, however, quite 
healthy. There were no sensory defects of any kind, 
and nothing significant was noted on the physical side 
other than her excessive frowning and very surly ex- 
pression. 

We were unable to get an altogether satisfactory 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 187 

account of the heredity. We knew the father to be an 
exceedingly brutal man, who beat his children, and who 
seemed to feel that their greatest obligation to him was 
in the matter of their supporting him. The mother evi- 
dently was under his influence, and the home conditions 
were very bad. There was a large family. Eventually 
the mother left the father and returned to Europe, where 
her parents still resided. Among the siblings we noted 
that there was no mental trouble. Two older sisters 
had been in court, but the delinquencies of neither one 
had been at all extreme, and bad home conditions suffi- 
ciently explained the misconduct. One of these girls 
has turned out very well indeed ; the other has become a 
great sex delinquent. We have never been able to learn 
that either was given to violent outbreaks of temper or 
to any other form of violent or uncontrolled behavior. 

Julia was said never to have been very sick and to have 
developed normally. She had, of course, been thrown in 
contact with the delinquent older sisters and later with 
other bad companions, but it could hardly be alleged that 
these were very great influences, for she herself was much 
more a leader than a follower. Her outbreaks of vio- 
lence were not based upon any conflicts or hidden emo- 
tional disturbance, so far as we were able to learn. 

As previously stated, some have considered this girl 
insane, particularly those who have seen her in one of 
her fits of temper. For this reason a very thorough psy- 
chological examination was originally made, and Julia 
was examined again after an interval of two years. We 
have always found the girl well oriented; she quite 
understood the home situation and her relation to it; 
she talked coherently and cogently; she knew well that 
she had an ungovernable temper and acknowledged that 
she could not control it. There was nothing indicative 
of delusions or, indeed, of any form of aberration. 



188 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

The interesting feature shown on psychological exami- 
nation was that this girl was able to perform tests for 
mental control very well indeed. She proved^ herself to 
have good innate ability. Performance tests were done 
rapidly, the records made being better than the average. 
She had no difficulty in tests for mental analysis; the 
pictorial apperception test was done without a single 
error; control of verbal associations was normal; con- 
tinuous subtraction test was done without an error and 
fairly rapidly. As for school work, Julia had completed 
the seventh grade in the public school at thirteen years. 
Indeed, judged merely by the results on tests nothing of 
significance would have been noted. I 

The only conclusion that one can reach in regard to 
such a problem is that there exists an innate defect in 
control, that powers of inhibition are not normal. There 
was no indication of any physical cause for this lack, nor 
was any explanation gained through study of various 
mental activities. The emotional make-up cannot be 
adequately studied by any means now at our disposal; 
we can only draw inferences in regard to emotions from 
general behavior. Certainly, in this case the emotions 
do not seem normal, but the girl never showed any ex- 
treme emotional reactions other than her bad temper. 
Often as we have seen her, we have never known her to 
cry, to show any violent hatred, or any tendency towards 
moodiness. 

In regard to the influence of adolescence, we recognize 
the fact that this girl had entered upon that period when 
she was first seen, but we must also remember that as she 
grows older her self-control is not becoming any greater ; 
if it were purely an adolescent phenomenon one would 
expect her to become more stable and better controlled 
with advancing years. Recent developments in her career 
give no indication of any betterment of behavior; a 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 189 

short time ago, the girl escaped from a correctional insti- 
tution, engaged in extreme immorality and stealing, 
was sent once more to a correctional institution, this time 
to one for adults. Upon her release, after a short sen- 
tence there, she attempted suicide; the exact events 
leading to this act we do not know. 

Now we can only regard the outlook for the future as 
extremely doubtful. As in the previous case, we had 
earlier advised the development of better mental inter- 
ests, and removal to a quieter environment. Unfortu- 
nately, this advice could never be followed ; even now it 
offers the best chance that remains for any possible 
improvement. 

Case 37. Here, again, we note great lack of control 
in the case of a boy well endowed mentally and physically, 
but who nevertheless is an extreme delinquent, mainly, 
it would seem, because of his innate defect in emotional 
control. 

Oliver L., at 17 years of age a big, well developed 
young fellow, was first brought into court a number of 
years before the case was studied by us. Indeed, from 
the court records we note that he was already proving 
troublesome when ten years old, at which time he was 
sent out to the country. No sooner was he returned to 
the city than he was again delinquent. In the inter- 
vening years his record for behavior was poor and since 
we have seen him he has been still further delinquent. 
He is regarded by all who know him as exceedingly un- 
reliable. Not only is he notoriously untruthful, but 
reports from his various places of employment show him 
to be unstable in his general behavior. On one occasion, 
for instance, when he was expected to come to court he 
did not appear, although from previous experience he 
knew this would reflect badly upon him. In explanation 
he weakly told the judge that he intended to report after 



190 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

he had gotten a job, and did not think that there was any 
harm in waiting a few days. 

After graduating from grammar school he worked at 
a number of occupations. Because he is a strong, nice 
looking boy of good intelligence, he has had little difficulty 
in obtaining one position after another. Most of them 
he has voluntarily relinquished after working only a 
short time. The family report that he is troublesome in 
every way at home. He is in general lazy ; he remains 
out late nights in spite of their efforts to keep him occu- 
pied and happy at home. At various times he has left 
home and traveled about the country. On one occasion 
he went to New York, stayed there two hours, and then, 
although he had never been there previously, returned 
home. Speaking of this, he later said he really had no 
desire to see the city, he did not suppose it any different 
from other cities, and, besides, he wanted to "move on." 
It was then that he suddenly made up his mind to jour- 
ney to Florida. He has also been to the Pacific coast, 
always making his own way. At times Oliver has given 
way extensively to bad sex habits, occasionally with other 
boys, but most often when alone. 

Aside from the record of delinquency the most notable 
feature in regard to this boy's behavior is his remarkable 
lack of control of his emotions ; for example, even in the 
courtroom, when quite a few persons were present, he 
broke down in the midst of his story and cried bitterly. 
This seemed such peculiar behavior for a big, strong fel- 
low of his age, that it was the occasion of our being asked 
to study the boy. 

We found him physically in exceedingly good condition. 
There were no sensory defects nor any other physical 
findings of significance. As for mentality, we soon were 
confident that the boy had very good mental powers. 
He did a wide range of tests very well indeed. Abstract 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 191 

material was handled as successfully as concrete. Tests 
for mental control were performed normally; even the 
code test was easy for him. But in the laboratory, as 
elsewhere, we were impressed with the lack of control 
of his emotions. No sooner was any topic concerning 
himself touched upon than the boy drew down the cor- 
ners of his mouth and began to cry. Indeed, he wept so 
bitterly that it was difficult for him to continue work for 
quite a long time. The same reaction was noted over and 
over on various occasions and in the presence of differ- 
ent persons. 

The family history was given us by an older brother, 
a very successful business man, quite well educated, and 
fine in his attitude toward the delinquent boy. From 
him we learned that the heredity was altogether nega- 
tive. The father, dead a number of years, had been a 
very good man, not alcoholic, and a very hard worker; 
he was a member of a family in which there was no mental 
trouble. The mother we found to be a very good woman ; 
she had never heard of epilepsy or insanity in any mem- 
ber of her family. Of the three siblings, Oliver was the 
only one who had ever caused any trouble. This older 
brother and an older sister had graduated from school 
with good records, both were married, and had never 
been in trouble of any kind. Oliver had always been 
healthy, in fact, unusually so. He had gone to school 
at the usual age, had been considered a bright boy, but 
early was in trouble and was once expelled. He was said 
to have associated with bad companions to quite a great 
extent, but no one of them had a record equal to his own. 
An interesting feature which came to light was the fact 
that the boy very frequently was penitent and many 
times had sincerely promised to do better, but invariably 
fell back into his old ways. 

We have here, then, an example of a boy strong and well 



192 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

physically, mentally quite capable, who is lacking, how- 
ever, in normal control of his emotions, and who shows 
his instability and poor powers of inhibition by his social 
reactions. There is no adequate explanation of his 
delinquencies other than his innate defect. Here the 
misconduct began prior to adolescence and has continued 
over a long period. One can only hope that with advanc- 
ing age the boy will be able to exert better control through 
a deeper appreciation of the necessity for this. (As a 
matter of fact, our later reports show that this boy is 
slowly improving.) 

Case 38. To illustrate the fact that defects in mental 
and emotional control may be so excessive as to verge 
upon a psychosis, we cite the following case. 

Allen B., nearly 13 years of age, was seen when brought 
by his parents, who complained that his behavior at home 
was excessively uncontrolled. His older sister reported 
that he swore terribly, that recently he had chased his 
mother with a knife, shrieking at her and calling her the 
worst of names, merely because his bed had been shifted 
a little. He had on several occasions attempted to 
attack his mother ; once he had gathered stones to throw 
at her ; he had beaten his father ; fought with the brothers 
and sisters, calling them insulting names in the presence of 
visitors ; refused to eat what was prepared for the fam- 
ily ; on one occasion in a rage he had run away from home 
several blocks on the city streets clad only in his under- 
garments. Though poor, the family had tried to humor 
him and had bought a violin hoping that he would be- 
come interested in music, for which he seemed to have 
talent. They paid fifty dollars for the instrument, and 
Allen in a fit of temper broke it to pieces. The teacher 
who had come to the house was driven out by the boy. 
A long recital of misconduct was to the effect that the 
boy exhibited extreme temper and lack of control. His 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 193 

people felt that he was dangerous, and something must 
be done in the home situation. 

The family history showed that Allen came from 
extremely neurotic and psychopathic stock. The mother 
was very nervous, always excitable, and easily frightened. 
The father, a very hard-working man, was asthmatic and 
otherwise sickly; he was extremely irritable, complain- 
ing constantly, and never was known to smile or appear 
happy. An older sister was excessively nervous; she 
had fainting attacks and became easily frightened, at 
which time she would tremble all over; she told us of 
attacks of dizziness and of early chorea ; the greater part 
of three years during adolescence she had spent in a 
hospital. Another sister, bright in school, likewise showed 
nervous signs which had been diagnosed as chorea. 

We could learn nothing significant regarding the devel- 
opmental history of Allen. He had a good school record, 
was in the seventh grade. He was said to prepare his 
lessons regularly, and his conduct was considerably better 
at school than at home. Physically he was rather small 
for his age and poorly developed. He complained of 
headaches and of vertigo when he read too long, but vision 
was not very defective as judged by a rough examination ; 
however, we felt that he should have his eyes studied by 
a specialist. He did not drink tea or coffee to excess, 
did not smoke, and was not known to have any bad 
habits. In all other respects physical examination was 
negative. There were no indications of nervous disturb- 
ance ; reflexes were quite normal, no tremors noted. 

As for mentality, it was most difficult to reach any 
conclusion because of the peculiarities of the lad. His 
general lack of self-control was most apparent upon test- 
ing him. He would, perhaps, begin an interview in a 
very friendly manner, showing the greatest willingness 
to cooperate, but might soon change his mood ? In the 



194 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

midst of one test he became hysterical, laughing in a most 
uncontrolled manner over the absurdities test of the 
Binet series. Whenever he did not see the solution of a 
problem quickly, he became utterly confused and hope- 
lessly involved. Thus, on one of the construction tests, 
his record was extremely poor; on each of two trials he 
failed to solve this. His powers of apperception, as in- 
dicated by tests as well as by his behavior, were decidedly 
poor. He made seven errors out of possible ten, on the 
pictorial apperception test, although a normal twelve- 
year-old boy should be able to perform this satisfactorily. 
His lack of good mental control was further indicated in 
a reading test, where he read the selection fluently, but 
in the reproduction incorporated ideas of his own which 
changed the meaning altogether. 

Seen a second day, the boy once more began well, but 
when he made a poor record on a certain test, his expres- 
sion changed to one of intense moroseness; he refused 
to do any further work and began to cry. An effort was 
made on a third day, at which time it was found that 
he had extremely poor control of his verbal associations, 
since he made 7 errors in giving the opposites to 20 dif- 
ferent words. About a week later the boy once more 
came to the laboratory and this time succeeded with 
several tests on which he had previously failed, but the 
opposites test for control of associations and the apper- 
ception test were as poorly done as formerly. 

Our final diagnosis regarding the mentality of this boy 
was that he was a border-line case of psychosis. That 
he was innately capable was shown by his good school 
record and by the ease with which he passed all of the 
Binet tests for general intelligence, but his lack of mental 
control was equally as apparent. His reactions on nu- 
merous tests showed decidedly aberrational tendencies, and 
his behavior indicated his defect in powers of inhibition 



DEFECTS IN MENTAL CONTROL 195 

and control. In this instance, of course, the hereditary 
basis was obvious. 

One can scarcely see how such a boy could get on in 
the family environment. It was recommended that he 
be placed in a quiet country home where there would be 
less in the way of irritation and more in the way of good 
discipline. We bore in mind, of course, that the aber- 
rational tendencies might increase, and the boy might 
develop an out-and-out psychosis. However, while the 
family showed such extreme neurotic tendencies and 
lack of nervous stability, none of them had ever been 
really insane. 



CHAPTER IX 

Special Abilities with General Mental Sub- 
normality 

Whereas this book has previously dealt with types of 
special disabilities found in individuals otherwise normal 
mentally, in this chapter will be considered the opposite 
type of mental irregularities, namely, special abilities which 
rise above the level of general mental subnormality. 
Remembering the definitions and limitations given in 
the first chapter, we need but reiterate here that we shall 
confine ourselves to issues which have practical signifi- 
cance in relation to educational and social problems. 

One might, of course, discuss special abilities found in 
the normal, and unusual gifts as seen in the genius or 
supernormal. But there is a peculiar advantage in 
studying aptitudes that arise from a level lower than the 
normal. Because all other powers are defective, the 
special ability looms large and is therefore more clearly 
discerned as a separate function. Knowledge derived 
from study of simpler forms of mental activity is needed 
to aid in understanding the highly complicated admix- 
ture of powers that genius generally represents. Indeed, 
the type of research presented in this chapter should be 
greatly extended in the future, that all the unitary func- 
tions and powers may be known. 

The cases offered in illustration of special abilities do 
not belong to the group of defectives who can do only 
the simplest work under direction and who must, there- 

196 



GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 197 

fore, be constantly protected and in many instances 
permanently segregated. A few are included who grade 
quite low on the Binet scale and hence would be regarded 
by some as definitely feeble-minded. However, they give 
evidence of special abilities of such social significance that 
there is a strong possibility of successful adjustment to 
conditions outside an institution. With the emphasis that 
is now placed on the social definition of the term feeble- 
minded, many of these individuals could not be com- 
mitted to a State institution for mental defectives. Their 
greatest happiness and society's best interests can be most 
largely conserved by discovering the tasks for which such 
persons are best fitted and by directing educational and 
vocational efforts accordingly. 

The belief seems quite general that all mental defectives 
are best fitted for handwork, that their main training 
should be in the sensory and perceptual fields. A certain 
amount of the three R's is added to this in the case of 
those who seem capable of grasping such subjects. What 
the author would here maintain is that for high grade 
defectives it is necessary to undertake psychological studies 
that are intensive, in order to find any special abilities 
which may exist, since even among defectives capacities 
are often uneven. 

We know from actual experience that not all feeble- 
minded are adapted to education on the motor side. In 
illustration, the following instance is cited. 

Case 39. A boy of 13 years was graded according to 
Binet as 7-f years mentally. He was unable to reply to 
any common-sense questions ; memory span for numerals 
presented either auditorily or visually was distinctly low 
(four and five numerals respectively). He could not 
reproduce with any semblance of correctness a passage 
read to him which contained twelve ideas ; his power of 
association for arbitrary symbols was exceedingly poor; 



198 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

in the simple substitution test he made five errors, and in 
a number of other tests, which we need not here enumer- 
ate in detail, the results corroborated the Binet- findings. 
There was no doubt that the boy was feeble-minded. On 
tests for psychomotor control and on construction tests 
requiring perception of form, or relationships of form, he 
made extremely poor records. At 1 1-J- years he was unable 
to copy a diamond shaped figure ; he failed on the simple 
construction test when it was first given him, though he 
later learned to do this. He failed likewise on the more 
difficult construction test and on the puzzle box. Given 
a problem involving concrete material he showed not only 
the greatest lack of rational procedure in the solution, 
but even inability to profit by errors when employing a 
trial and error method. Many impossibilities were tried 
and repeated; indeed, this boy was poorer in such tests 
than are many feeble-minded of even lower grade than he. 

He had no ability in the handling of numbers ; he could 
only count slowly by ones. However, he showed quite a 
facility for reading. To our great surprise he was able 
to render quite fluently a third-grade passage and to 
reproduce the content fairly well. Considering his 
limited training in reading, this seemed most remarkable. 
His special ability was so narrow and unrelated to other 
mental traits that perhaps little could be made of it in the 
way of practical application. On the other hand, the 
chance for training this boy to become an industrial 
worker with concrete material would seem to be almost 
nil. 

Special ability for some one type of performance is 
frequently found in members of the subnormal group. 
It would seem worth while to differentiate the training 
given to such individuals, at least in specific instances 
where findings on tests offer justification for it. Those 
who have particular ability in the field of language could 



GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 199 

certainly profit by training which would be useless for 
others. Again, there are some few who, because of special 
ability for numbers, could perhaps be trained for an 
occupation where their special gift could be used, rather 
than have the major portion of their time consumed by 
training in basketry or other handwork. Sometimes there 
is a special talent for music, or some other form of art, 
such as drawing or dancing, or dramatic expression. Or 
it is an exceptionally good memory, perhaps specialized 
visual memory or rote memory in general, that stands 
above the general level of other powers. More often 
still, there is ability to deal with the concrete, for experi- 
ence corroborates, on the whole, such studies as Nors- 
worthy's, 1 where it was found that in the sensory fields 
the normal and the defective are much more nearly equal 
in ability than in powers of reasoning, judgment, or ability 
to deal with abstractions. Indeed, some subnormals, 
and even some feeble-minded, are superior to many a 
normal person in the doing of handwork. Nor do we 
mean the very rarely met feeble-minded person with 
exceptional mechanical and constructive genius. 

Occasionally, unusually good motor dexterity may be 
the exceptional gift, without corresponding skill in manual 
work. We have long known the case of a young man, now 
eighteen years old, a mental defective who never did well 
on tests with concrete material, who has become a very 
successful boxer. His motor reactions are quick and well 
controlled,* and this, together with his aggressiveness and 
general forcefulness, makes him something of an expert 
in his own field. 

In apperceptive ability subnormals as well as lower 
grade defectives vary greatly. We have seen both high- 
grade morons and border-line individuals who were well 

1 Nors worthy, Naomi. "The Psychology of Mentally Deficient 
Children." Archives of Pspcholoay, il, 1906. ." ■*" 



200 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

aware of their own limitations, and then we have seen 
others who did not appreciate their lack of mental endow- 
ment to any adequate degree. Probably the social success 
of subnormals and high-grade feeble-minded is in direct 
proportion to the degree of apperceptive ability which 
they possess; or, at least, this added to other special 
abilities. 

For the final determination of many moot points, we 
need much more careful study of the capacities of mental 
defectives who are not segregated in colonies or institu- 
tions. We ought to know what percentage succeed 
industrially, in what kinds of occupations they are 
engaged, and all facts which might throw light on the 
causes of their success. This information should be 
correlated with their mental age and the training they 
have received. It may well be that high-grade defectives 
and subnormals are performing more varied types of 
work than they are believed by many to be capable of 
doing. 

SPECIAL ABILITY IN NUMBER WORK 

The fact that individuals with general mental defect 
may have unusual ability in number work has been rec- 
ognized in the case of some mathematical prodigies who 
show great disability in all other respects. Considering 
the fact that the correct manipulation of the four funda- 
mental processes, adding, subtracting, multiplying, and 
dividing, depends largely upon rote memory, a function 
often extremely good even in the feeble-minded, it is not 
at all surprising that even feeble-minded children may be 
accurate and often fairly rapid in such performances. Of 
course, it is quite a different story when we reach the more 
difficult phases of number work, which are concerned with 
problems in which reasoning is involved. 



GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 201 

We need not here give instances of defectives who have 
learned the rudimentary aspects of number work, since 
this is so very common, but occasionally one meets a 
subnormal child who seems to have a good grasp of the 
operations of arithmetic. Such children are able some- 
times to do so-called mental arithmetic rapidly, even 
though they themselves are unable to analyze the mental 
processes sufficiently to explain their methods. 

The practical significance of special ability of this kind 
is quite obvious. In an institution, or outside, such facility 
in dealing with number combinations could be utilized. 
Certainly, it would be a help in all business relations 
and might be the main consideration in vocational guid- 
ance of individuals so gifted. There is every reason to 
suppose that, given certain other qualities, such as honesty 
and trustworthiness, a defective with this special ability 
might be qualified for a position as cashier. 

Case 40. Martin T., 16 years old, had attended school 
from his sixth year, but had only reached the fifth grade 
when he withdrew at fourteen years. His record was 
poor, he had been a truant, and had several times repeated 
his grades. 

The psychological examination showed very plainly the 
innate mental weakness of the boy and equally as signifi- 
cantly the special ability, which had apparently never 
been recognized, or at least put to any use. The boy did 
so poorly on various tests that he had to be regarded as 
undoubtedly subnormal in general; on the Binet scale 
his final score stood as several tests beyond the level for 
ten years. Reasoning powers, except as required in 
arithmetic, were markedly defective. Replies to common- 
sense questions, such as are given in the Binet tests, were 
very stupid, showing poor powers of comprehension and 
apperception. This was corroborated by the results on a 
number of different tests. He did very poorly on tests 



202 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

for mental analysis, showed poor control of verbal asso- 
ciations, and very poor powers of motor control. Memory 
for rote material was somewhat better, as was his ability 
to handle simple concrete material. Results on these 
latter tests were not unusual in any way, but were good in 
comparison with the problems involving comprehension 
of abstractions. 

His school work was poor on the whole. He was unable 
to spell correctly even fairly simple words ; indeed, when 
asked to write from dictation "The printer made some 
cards", the only word written correctly was "the." He 
read a third-grade passage haltingly, showing unf amiliarity 
with words in common use. But when number work was 
done some very interesting results were found. The boy 
had evidently never learned thoroughly the processes as 
such. He did not know how to do a problem in long 
division, and multiplying by two numbers he did as follows : 
First, he obtained the product of the first number correctly, 
then multiplied this product by the second number in- 
stead of using the multiplicand. Thus, while he knew the 
combinations of the multiplication tables, he did not 
know the method of handling a two-place multiplier. His 
lack of knowledge in regard to the proper solution of such 
numerical operations was probably due to a lack of train- 
ing, for the boy had been truant much. 

On all number work performed orally, — so-called 
"mental arithmetic", — the boy did extremely well. 
To our very great surprise he was quick in the solving of 
arithmetical problems. He very promptly told us the 
change that would be left if he had $2.00 and spent $1.47. 
Given the cost of one article he promptly gave the correct 
answer as to the cost of any multiple of this, or conversely, 
if told the price of a dozen oranges, for example, he readily 
gave the cost of any portion of a dozen. He rapidly gave 
the correct answer to the following problem : " If you had 



GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 203 

some apples and gave away one-half and lost one-half of 
those left and then had four, how many must you have had 
at first?" For comparison with this we must remember 
that this boy was unable to detect the absurdity in such a 
statement as "Yesterday I saw a man walking on the 
street with his hands in his pockets swinging a cane", nor 
did he give what is accounted a correct reply to the 
common-sense question as to what he would do before 
undertaking an important affair, or why one should judge 
a person by his acts rather than by his words. 

Here is a boy, then, who shows very poor judgment and 
powers of reasoning in regard to many simple situations 
of real life, and who, nevertheless, is able to deal with 
number combinations very rapidly. He adds and makes 
change without any trouble, he can reason in regard to 
situations involving numerical relationships, and he can 
carry on processes in "his head" far better than he can 
do anything else. One can hardly explain his lack of 
school knowledge and his poor ability in reading and writ- 
ing altogether on the basis of his truancy, because he had 
been held for several periods in a school for truants, where 
the instruction and training is known to be good. 
Furthermore, his general subnormality is evidenced by 
his poor results on a number of tests, many of which are 
not dependent upon school training. 

After leaving school Martin had gone to work, but was 
said never to be able to keep a job. He had been em- 
ployed as errand boy by several different business firms, 
but apparently had never been interested in any work that 
he had tried. No physical troubles could be held account- 
able for his retardation or vocational failures. He was a 
big, strong, very well developed boy, in excellent physical 
condition, except for tonsils which were somewhat en- 
larged. He had never been seriously ill, according to the 
family history which we obtained from the parents. 



204 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

No special training had been give him in the subject 
in which the boy excelled, nor had any cognizance been 
taken of it in the work that had been obtained for him. 
He had been placed, we know, through an agency in several 
different positions, but without any regard to his general 
stupidity or his special ability. Whether any practical 
measures taking into account his gift for manipulation of 
numbers could have been undertaken, is open to discussion. 
When the boy was studied by us he had already been long 
delinquent and was not altogether trustworthy, so that he 
was unfitted for handling money. He had been engaged 
in several stealing affairs, was fond of gambling, and had 
once been in a burglary. To what extent his mentality 
was a direct factor in his misconduct we cannot be sure, 
but it probably had much relationship to his early truancy, 
which, as we know, so often leads to more serious misdeeds. 

In any case, his ability for handling numbers and number 
relationships might well have been used to advantage; 
perhaps with training the boy might have been more in- 
terested in some clerical work than in the positions that 
had been procured for him without regard to his special 
ability and disabilities. 

SPECIAL ABILITY FOR LANGUAGE 

Some mental defectives have special ability for language, 
exhibited not only by the acquirement of a remarkably 
good vocabulary, but also by the effective and often dra- 
matic use of words. We have known subnormal and even 
rather low grade feeble-minded individuals who, without 
special training, have shown facility in the use of several 
languages. The practical bearings of this talent are 
extremely important. Because lay verdicts regarding 
mental ability are based largely upon impressions gained 
through conversation, such people are usually accounted 



GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 205 

quite normal and even bright. It is generally felt that 
if a person is able to talk coherently and well, he must, 
perforce, be intelligent. 

This type of special ability has been discussed at length 
by Healy in his textbook. He shows the misconceptions 
that often arise in the courtroom concerning the mentality 
of the mentally defective verbalist, as well as the serious 
consequences to which such faulty judgments lead. We 
may repeat very briefly the position taken in regard to the 
influence which this particular talent exerts on psy- 
chological examinations. Naturally, tests which depend 
upon language ability would be well performed, thus 
obscuring the fact that in other respects the individual 
may be exceedingly lacking. Since Binet tests partic- 
ularly involve the use of language, this becomes a vital 
matter in the testing of school cases, as well as court cases, 
for in so many instances the Binet tests alone are relied 
upon for mental diagnosis. It is quite possible that 
this ability, together with good rote memory, would 
enable a child to maintain his position in the ordinary 
classroom for a few years before he is recognized as a 
defective with special ability. When reasoning and judg- 
ment are required, the defects, of course, begin to be 
apparent, and yet, from our own experience we know that 
there are cases where the individual is accounted normal 
by all who come into contact with him until a psychological 
examination reveals the truth. 

The negative aspects of this problem are more striking 
than the positive ones, for without other abilities it is 
difficult to see how facility in the field of language can be 
practically useful; in most, if not all, positions in the 
social world parrot-like ability to talk well will not suffice. 
In consequence of their special gift, most of the defectives 
with special language ability whom we have seen have 
been socially dangerous ; they have been able to impose 



206 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

upon all who know them and to pass among their asso- 
ciates as normal, even when their behavior has indicated 
great stupidity. Educational and vocational failures, 
puzzling perhaps because of this deceptive semblance of 
normal mentality, can be understood only when this type 
of special ability is appreciated in all its practical bearings. 

Case 41. Wilhelmina T., 18 years old, was a girl who 
made an extremely favorable impression. She talked 
very well, expressing herself in good English. She enjoyed 
expressing her views of life, and for a girl of her age she 
had quite a philosophy, crude and immature, but fairly 
consistent. She had attended school for eight years, 
according to her parents, and had reached the sixth grade 
when she withdrew. Both her parents and her teachers 
regarded her progress as unsatisfactory, but the latter 
had never stated that she was below normal mentally. 
The girl had many advantages ; her parents were intelli- 
gent, the home a very good one, earlier the family had 
traveled quite extensively, and later the girl had received 
private instruction in music and elocution. 

The results of the psychological examination were 
surprising, because they were so little in accord with the 
exceedingly good impression which the girl made in con- 
versation. It was evident that she had a special gift for 
language, for she did well all tests where ability to express 
oneself was an aid. Indeed, with the single exception 
of the test for psychomotor control, the only good results 
were achieved on the opposites test which requires control 
of verbal associations, on reading, and on writing sen- 
tences. 

On the other hand, after noting the failures made on 
many comparatively simple tasks, one had little doubt 
of the girPs limitations. On construction tests she showed 
no resourcefulness; her reactions were childish, and she 
wished repeatedly to be allowed to stop before the ex- 



GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 207 

piration of the time limit. Urged to continue, she was 
unable to solve even the simplest test of this type. She 
showed no greater ability in dealing with abstractions; 
tests for mental representation were not only failures, 
but the purpose of the tests was not even grasped. The 
girl herself said, " I can't think of it or remember it ; it's 
too hard." It was evident that she did not employ visual 
imagery as an aid ; indeed we soon discovered that visual 
memory powers were very poor. No better success was 
achieved in the simple substitution test. 

When the failures were analyzed it was seen that Wil- 
helmina was exceedingly incompetent. She not only 
lacked resourcefulness and planfulness, but she also did 
not profit by her own experiences. In reasoning and 
apperceptive ability she was plainly lacking; in fact, 
there was no single type of work done well, except lan- 
guage tests. Undoubtedly it was this gift for self-ex- 
pression that obscured the fact of the girl's subnormality. 
She was stupid in general, but with special ability for 
language. 

It was interesting to find that Wilhelmina had readily 
obtained several positions as salesgirl and that she was 
considered satisfactory in that capacity. The delin- 
quencies in which she became involved need not be re- 
counted here; we are interested in them only as her 
abilities or disabilities bear upon them. There were 
causative factors other than mentality, but her mental 
limitations formed no doubt one contributing cause ; her 
innate defects in foresight and judgment accounted in 
part, at least, for the difficulties in which she became in- 
volved. What could be done constructively to aid the 
girl is another matter. Indeed, one could only urge 
that she be carefully protected, and that her general dis- 
ability be recognized in order that demands which she 
would not be equal to meet should not be made. 



208 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Case 42. Below is cited briefly the case of a girl who, 
although very definitely low-grade feeble-minded, yet 
was not generally recognized as such because of her 
ability to talk well. 

Catherine L. came to this country a stranger, illit- 
erate, untrained, but because of remarkable language 
ability was able to obtain and hold positions, to interest 
people in her behalf, and to make an extremely good 
impression, all on the basis of her vivacious and fluent 
conversation. 

Catherine had been but sixteen months in this country, 
having come to join relatives. Her mother remained in 
Europe. Because of poor family circumstances she had 
never attended school a day in her life. She had lived 
in a small country town and had received no trade train- 
ing, or, for that matter, training of any kind. 

When we saw the girl she was able to converse fluently 
in English. She had quite a good vocabulary and a great 
deal of feeling for choice of words. She spoke dramati- 
cally, and the effectiveness of her special gift was seen in 
the fact that she had been able to obtain positions which, 
had her real defects been known, would never have been 
given her. Thus, she was going from door to door selling 
some patent appliance, having had some friend read for 
her the advertisement through which she had gotten her 
position as canvasser. She could not keep account of the 
money which she received in exchange for her goods, so 
she invented a very plausible story, asking her customers 
to make out a receipt which stated the amount which they 
had given her ; then later she had others count the money 
which she turned over to her employers. Although so 
shrewd in this, her general apperceptions were poor, and 
she was so lacking in foresight that she soon became in- 
volved in difficulties. She was exceedingly untruthful 
and began stealing in very stupid ways. But so favor- 



^GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 209 

able was the impression which she made, that, in spite 
of these faults, no one interested in the girl ever realized 
that she was a defective. She always tried to cover her 
misdeeds by plausible stories and the result was that grad- 
ually she was considered to be delinquent, — never feeble- 
minded. 

It was necessary to spend much time and to make a 
most careful study of this girl's mentality, because one 
had to take into account her lack of educational opportuni- 
ties and give her the benefit of the doubt in such work as 
depended upon this. Bearing this point in mind, we yet 
were convinced at the end of our study that the girl was a 
mental defective. She showed very poor ability to handle 
concrete material; although she did remember solutions 
of problems when they were shown her, she herself showed 
absolutely no power to reason. She failed on the simplest 
tests for powers of analysis, showed extremely poor powers 
of apperception on special tests as well as in her social 
behavior. In spite of having handled money in her daily 
occupation, she had not learned to add the simplest sums 
nor to make simple change. In every way, then, we had 
evidence of her poor mental endowment. 

On the other hand, we were told by those who were 
competent to judge that she spoke well in several lan- 
guages, which she had learned through residing in different 
countries. Her English was unexpectedly good. We 
took verbatim a long conversation held with Catherine, 
and no one would believe it possible that a feeble-minded 
girl could have mastered so well a new language in the 
length of time that she had been in this country. There 
was no doubt that she had a great gift for power of ex- 
pression. 

We see here a very clear illustration of the dangers that 
this talent involves. Almost any one would have been 
deceived by this girl, and indeed, a great deal in the way 



210 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

of monetary help had been wasted, for her innate mental 
defects made it all along unlikely that she would be able 
to succeed. The sympathy and money given her might 
have been much more wisely expended in helping some 
one who would have profited thereby. We ourselves rec- 
ommended that this girl be committed to an institution, 
for we felt that the mental and social prognosis was ex- 
tremely unfavorable. 

SPECIAL ABILITY FOR WORK WITH CONCRETE 
MATERIAL 

The frequency with which special ability for working 
with concrete material is found among the subnormal 
and even feeble-minded has already been mentioned. 
Those segregated in good institutions often profit greatly 
by the very thorough training they receive along lines 
that are practical and useful in the upkeep of the institu- 
tion. In the special rooms of the public schools handwork 
forms the greater part of the curriculum. A questionable 
feature of this is found in the practice of training children 
so largely and so long with material that will probably 
not be useful after the child withdraws from school; 
almost none will later weave baskets and work with raffia 
and reed. In some schools we know that training for 
definite trades is given, and this would seem a wise course 
to pursue. Many of the subnormal children are fitted 
only for occupations that require manual ability, and if 
they have some one trade at which they are able to do well, 
it must surely facilitate vocational success. 

Several cases are presented to illustrate the above points, 
instances being taken where the level of general intelli- 
gence is comparatively low in order to demonstrate the 
marked contrast that may exist and the great social im- 
port of special abilities. 



GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 211 

Case 43. We found here the special ability in marked 
contrast to general subnormality yet unrecognized until 
revealed by the psychological examination. 

Bernard G. was 17£ years old when we were asked to 
see him. The psychological examination gave clear 
evidence of the mental traits in which this boy was 
particularly weak and those in which he had good ability. 
Rote memory was much below normal for his age, and 
his inability to form new associations was evident in the 
so-called substitution learning test, where a number is 
to be associated with a symbol. Powers of analysis and 
judgment were likewise poor. Indeed, the boy did very 
badly with any tests for the higher mental functions. 
He had learned little during his seven or eight years 
attendance at school ; his reading was very poor, and he 
made numerous errors on the processes in arithmetic. 
Judged by the Binet scale, he was a middle-grade moron. 

The significant feature, however, as far as social life was 
concerned, was the fact that he was successful on all types 
of tests which require good manual and motor ability. 
Construction tests were done very well and quickly, in a 
manner showing an appreciation of the problems and a 
rational method of solution ; indeed, they were performed 
quite as well as by the ordinary normal boy of his age. 
Motor coordinations were equally as good. 

There was nothing of any significance noted on physical 
examination. The boy was very well developed and well 
nourished ; he was broad-shouldered and strong. 

Home conditions were not good; the father, a hard 
drinking man, had frequently deserted the family and had 
been arrested for non-support. The mother was appar- 
ently a very good woman, and Bernard was the only one 
of the six living children who had caused any trouble. 
From the mother's point of view the main problem was 
that this boy did not work steadily. She claimed he had 



212 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

a great number of positions, but he did not keep any of 
them long. The boy himself said that he had held one 
position for a year ; at that time he worked in a factory, 
after which he had been delivery boy for a milkman. 

Earlier the boy had been much of a truant. Later he 
had run away from home a number of times, staying away 
for a period as long as six months, but, of course, his 
father's conduct was largely responsible for this. One 
of the social agencies had been assisting the family, and 
they wished to know what was the best thing to do for 
this boy. 

One interesting feature in this case is the fact that 
though the boy had attended the public schools of a large 
city, he had not been examined for mentality nor been 
placed in a special room. He had evidently been carried on 
from year to year. He had received no special instruc- 
tion in handwork, nor had he been prepared for any trade. 

As a result of the findings on tests, it was advised that 
this boy should not be placed in any unselected position 
offered ; for instance, he was not fit to be a delivery boy. 
His memory powers were very poor, and he needed an 
occupation that gave him the opportunity to use those 
mental capacities in which he was practically as good as 
the normal. He probably would have made a fairly 
successful worker at some trade that was not too complex. 
Big and strong as he was, and without evidence of any 
severely vicious or delinquent tendencies, there seemed 
little reason to believe that he would be unable to maintain 
himself in the community if proper work were obtained 
for him. Aside from the problem of eugenics involved, 
there certainly seemed no reason why the State should 
support this boy. 

Case 44. This case, though so briefly studied, is cited 
to show the successful outcome of wise vocational adjust- 
ment, even where general intelligence is low. 



GENERAL MENTAL STJBNORMALITY 213 

Leo N., 16i years, attended public school from his 
seventh to his sixteenth year. He was in the fifth grade 
when he left school, having been promoted without really 
passing after two years' trial in the third grade. The 
principal of the school told us he always considered that 
Leo was "born short." The boy had never been placed 
in a class for subnormal children, nor had he received any 
special instruction of any kind. Our examination showed 
conclusively that most of the time spent in school had 
been virtually wasted ; the boy's mentality precluded the 
possibility of his learning by the usual school methods. 
He had acquired very little in any of the school branches ; 
he did not even write his own name well. He realized 
his limitations, saying that he was no scholar and that he 
could not learn to read. However, the boy showed much 
dexterity in manual work ; he did several tests in this field 
very well, proving himself to have ability to reason with 
concrete material and to have very good psychomotor 
control. This boy was tested before the present Binet 
series was issued or our own present tests developed, but 
there is no doubt that Leo would have graded as feeble- 
minded on everything except in handling concrete material. 
It is to be remembered, however, that his social apper- 
ceptive ability was good. He failed on almost every other 
kind of test. Especially poor was his rote memory span 
and his learning of the substitution or arbitrary association 
test, nor did he remember much better ideas which were 
logically connected. 

We strongly urged that this boy be placed at work and 
taught a trade where his special abilities might come into 
play. This was done, and he began work in a carpenter 
shop. The outcome has been extremely good ; some five 
years after first seeing the boy we learned that he has never 
again been delinquent, that he works steadily and saves 
his money, is quite contented, and able to take care of 
himself in every way. 



214 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

SPECIAL ABILITY IN ROTE MEMORY 

That the subnormal, even the low-grade feeble r minded, 
may have remarkably good powers of rote memory is so 
well known that the fact requires no lengthy discussion. 
Merely one example of such special ability, where there 
is marked contrast to other powers that are quite defec- 
tive, is cited. 

Case 45. James C, Hi years old, was brought to 
court as a truant. He had been examined previously in 
another clinic, and diagnosed as defective, and placed in 
a class for subnormal children, but did so well in his 
school work there that he was removed and placed in a 
regular grade. 

Physically James was in fair general condition. Vision 
was very defective in one eye and slightly defective in 
the other, but he wore glasses which corrected this defect. 
Otherwise nothing significant was found. According to 
our findings on the Binet scale, James was just about three 
years retarded. It is worth noting that he failed on those 
Binet tests which required either reasoning or common- 
sense apperceptions. Even more striking was his in- 
ability to perform the construction tests, except the sim- 
plest ones. It was quite apparent that he had poor per- 
ception of relationships of form and that he did not use 
any reasoning in solving problems of this type. Tests 
for analysis and mental representation were complete 
failures. His general reactions were very slow and he 
showed poor control of verbal associations. 

In contradistinction to his failures, we found that he did 
very well on rote memory work. Memory span was nor- 
mal for his age, and furthermore, he had learned school 
work of the first three grades — the only ones which he 
had attended — so well that he was able to make quite a 
good record on tests for the work of these grades. He read 



GENEEAL MENTAL SUBNOEMALITY 215 

fluently, without mispronouncing any words in a second- 
grade passage, and on a third-grade passage made only 
one error, mispronouncing the word "Autumn." He 
could give a correct though somewhat meagre reproduction 
of what he had read. His writing was quite good, and 
his spelling about average for his age and grade. As for 
number work, he could add and subtract, and knew the 
simpler parts of the multiplication tables. 

Because of his good powers of rote memory, by means 
of which he had learned the ordinary school subjects of 
the lower grades, he was accounted by some as being con- 
siderably brighter than wider testing showed him to be. 
Of course, he was retarded in school, but we must re- 
member that he had been truant a good deal, and that 
for a time he had been in a room for subnormal children. 
Later we learned that he was committed to a school for 
truants, from whence came the report that though the 
boy had some learning ability, he could not adapt himself 
to the regime of the institution. 

In the light of the results on a number of tests, there is 
no doubt that this boy was subnormal or high-grade feeble- 
minded. Probably the time will soon come when he will 
be unable to maintain his position in the ordinary class- 
room, for we have no doubt he will fail to progress when 
the work becomes difficult and demands reasoning and 
analysis, in both of which he is so lacking. 

On the basis of the results of tests, one cannot feel that 
the best training for this boy is the ordinary handwork, so 
largely taught in special classes. He does not seem to 
have any ability for this type of work. On the other 
hand, it is quite possible that his good rote memory powers, 
by further training, might become a valuable asset in 
his future career. There is no reason why such a lad 
could not be trained to become a fairly good clerical worker. 
He would never be able to keep a position of responsibility 



216 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

where judgment was required, but he might get on very- 
well in routine work where little was left to his own initia- 
tive or judgment. 

BORDER-LINE CASES 

Sometimes it is most difficult to make a clear-cut general 
statement in regard to mental capacities. There are 
border-line cases which even after long observation and 
perhaps repeated psychological testing still are difficult 
to classify. From the standpoint of practical treatment 
the first necessity lies in reaching a decision as to whether 
such individuals require institutional care or not. Be- 
yond the point of setting forth the fact of feeble-minded- 
ness, that is, social incompetency, the terminology used 
to designate general ability quantitatively is not so im- 
portant, since if the special abilities and disabilities are 
known, good methods of training will take these into ac- 
count regardless of any classification. The same is true 
when we consider vocational possibilities. We must 
remember that specialized defects of certain types may 
influence a number of tests and will lead to erroneous final 
judgment if not known as such. Thus, language disability 
is often such a handicap in the Binet scale that an in- 
dividual otherwise normal may grade, according to this 
system, as feeble minded. 

Case 46. To illustrate such a problem, a typical case 
is presented where abilities and disabilities are clearly 
seen, and where the mental classification is open to 
question. 

Frederick J. was first seen when he was 13 years 9 
months old. At that time he was in the third grade in 
school. He had been persistently truant, but engaged in 
no other form of deliquency. He was born in America 
of English speaking parents. 



GENERAL MENTAL STJBNORMALITY 217 

Physically he was in good condition, except for traces of 
a speech trouble which earlier had been severe. As for 
the mental examination, he made a very good record on 
the construction tests and all work with concrete material. 
Indeed, some of the more difficult tests, which require 
reasoning and quite good insight, were not very difficult 
for him. A striking difference was found between the 
auditory and visual memory fields, the former being very 
much better of the two. He gave a good reproduction 
of a passage read to him, so far as the ideas contained 
therein were concerned, — he omitted only one of the 
twelve items, — but in his account there was no adherence 
to verbal accuracy and little regard for logical sequence. 
Visual memory tests were miserable failures. It was quite 
apparent that the boy had exceedingly poor powers of 
visualization. 

Perhaps this lack was a factor in the failure on tests for 
mental representation and analysis. On these he never 
succeeded even in numerous trials. After seeing a figure, 
he could not reproduce it from memory, nor could he 
recognize the various parts when the figure was analyzed. 
His associative processes were decidedly defective. He 
made many errors in giving the opposites of very simple 
words. He had much difficulty in forming new associa- 
tions between arbitrary symbols, the record on this test 
being exceedingly poor. 

The results on school work were quite discrepant. He 
did work in arithmetic out of proportion to his ability to 
read and write; he could add, subtract, and multiply 
accurately. On the other hand, he could not write any- 
thing except his own name, not even the individual 
letters of the alphabet; he could not read the letters 
when they were shown him, nor could he always recog- 
nize them, though he could say the alphabet without 
error. Neither could he read the simplest passage. 



218 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

He failed to recognize such simple monosyllables as 
"am" and "in." 

About two and one half years after we first saw Fred- 
erick, we had occasion to study him once more. At that 
time we found that his disabilities were as striking as pre- 
viously. He showed much difficulty in the correct use of 
language and was still exceedingly defective in visual 
memory powers. He told us that he had made one more 
grade in school, having finished the fourth when he with- 
drew at fourteen years. In the intervening years the 
boy had gained practically nothing in either reading or 
writing ; his spelling was almost unbelievably inaccurate ; 
he could not write the name of the school which he had 
been attending, and it would have been impossible to 
have interpreted his writing without his own explanation. 
He still could not read, but as for number work, he per- 
formed correctly the three of the fundamental processes 
which he had been taught, namely, addition, subtraction 
and multiplication. 

In view of the fact that this boy shows on psychological 
tests that he has certain innate defects, it is difficult to 
know whether he should be regarded as an out-and-out 
feeble-minded, or whether in the light of his good ability 
along certain lines it would not be practically more help- 
ful to consider him a case of specialized defects. Accord- 
ing to the Binet scales he grades through ten years, his 
failures being entirely on language tests and the one for 
visual memory. Of course, his disabilities are quite ex- 
tensive. Without doubt he is extremely poor in visual 
powers and likewise in the field of language. Perhaps 
these two weaknesses will account for his poor records on 
association tests and form the basis of his inability to 
learn reading, writing, and spelling; but on the other 
hand it might be argued that his ability to learn arithmetic 
and to make ordinary computations, as well as his capabili- 



GENERAL MENTAL SUBNORMALITY 219 

ties along motor lines, are simply special capacities not 
at all incompatible with feeble-mindedness. One could 
present quite good arguments for either diagnosis. 

Practically, however, as above stated, it does not much 
matter if one reaches the conclusion that the boy is not a 
fit subject for an institution. We know, at least, that 
certain types of work are well-nigh impossible for him to 
learn, and that he will probably always be unsuited for 
certain occupations. On the other hand, he should have 
training along industrial lines and then later engage in 
some definite trade. Whether he could ever gain even 
moderate facility in the handling of language and learn to 
read and write, is a doubtful matter, since his disabilities 
are pretty widespread. We do not know that any emphasis 
was placed upon phonetic drill in his schooling so that 
the boy could benefit by his good auditory powers, or 
that any methods were ever used adapted to his particular 
problem. One interesting fact which always stood in 
the way of proper training with this lad was the father's 
attitude ; he said he did not want the boy to use tools, 
he wanted him to be "educated." 



CHAPTER X 

Genekal Conclusions 

It Is not the author's purpose to offer any specific 
devices guaranteed to overcome defects or to develop 
abilities. Since each individual problem-case would 
seem to require intelligent consideration on the basis of 
all data that can be gathered concerning it, it naturally 
follows that no general formulas for treatment can be 
given, no dogmatic statements made in regard to general 
constructive measures. Rather, we would reiterate a 
trite and perhaps commonplace observation that the 
human mind is wonderfully complex, that, in consequence, 
capacities frequently can be determined only by pains- 
taking investigation and thoughtful consideration of all 
that goes to make the given results on tests. 

The first principle of progress towards the goal of devel- 
oping each individual in relation to his potentialities is 
recognition of the actual need for individual adjustment. 
To realize that such a problem exists, to be able to for- 
mulate it clearly in one's own mind, to see its significance 
and its relation to life, is the first step toward its solution. 
It has been the purpose in the preceding chapters to pre- 
sent types of abilities and disabilities that require special 
consideration, as well as to prove the practical importance 
of directing efforts in accordance with these mental char- 
acteristics. 

We must view critically the present means for meeting 
the situation. Ungraded classes, "floating teachers", 

220 



GENEEAL CONCLUSIONS 221 

junior and senior high schools and other administrative 
measures, advancement in school by subjects rather than 
by grades, are all helpful, but inadequate. Courses in 
household and practical arts, commercial, industrial, and 
agricultural training, offer greater scope for adapting 
education to individual capacities and interests than was 
possible in the past, but these, too, are not enough. 
More fundamental than all of these, because offering the 
basis of the wise and rational use of all special training, 
is the need for educational diagnosis. Before under- 
taking treatment the ailment must be known ; the cause 
of the trouble must be determined before steps can be 
taken looking toward effective remedy. This is as true 
of mental peculiarity as of physical troubles, and it 
applies in educational and vocational life as truly as in 
any other field. 

Of course we must appreciate the complexities inherent 
in any effort to study an individual's mental character- 
istics, and while realizing the folly of minimizing the 
difficulties and limitations, we should not lose sight of 
the many important and helpful facts that can be learned. 
At present there are many gaps in the knowledge required 
for a scientific study of human beings ; we cannot always 
distinguish between mental traits ; we do not know with 
surety where one process ends and another begins, or 
how one is related to another. We do not know the best 
age at which to study individuals in order to determine 
the facts which should modify education. Mental tests 
in their present stage of development cannot answer all 
our problems. 

This is, however, no reason why we should not make 
use of such means of reaching helpful conclusions as are 
now available. Even though subtle distinctions cannot 
be made and minute individual differences discriminated, 
we may find many illuminating suggestions in special in- 



222 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

stances of failures and successes. There is little value in 
the effort to read into results of tests more than they are 
known to reveal, to make on such a basis generalizations 
that are only assumptions not open to proof. It is wiser 
to confess frankly that correlations between mental pro- 
cesses involved in definite tests and complex activities, 
educational and vocational, are not yet established. But 
this does not lessen a whit the value of findings which 
indicate peculiarities in individual mental functioning. 
It is the part of wisdom to discover all one can of the 
characteristic mental traits of individuals and to guide 
practical procedure in the light of these findings. 

Many practically valuable diagnoses may be made if 
we are aware of the individual differences that exist and 
are intelligent enough to interpret reactions that indicate 
need for special adaptations. Such study of mental 
make-up as has been indicated in the chapter on Mental 
Diagnosis can be undertaken by those trained for the 
task. In the chapter on Differential Diagnosis is dis- 
cussed the care which must be exercised before final 
conclusions are reached. If the examination is thorough 
and made under favorable conditions, psychological tests, 
in spite of all possible criticisms, illuminate many a situa- 
tion and give an insight into traits that are fundamental 
for training and for vocational life. 

We know, for instance, of a boy now 14 years old whose 
entire school career has undoubtedly been greatly modi- 
fied for the better because his intelligent parents under- 
stood better than his teachers the harm that was result- 
ing from the use of methods not adapted to his defective 
functioning in certain mental processes. It was early 
recognized that the boy had poor auditory powers and 
exceptionally good visual powers. When five years 
old he drew a very good representation of the facade of 
an ancient university building he had seen, and at seven 



GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 223 

made a most complicated drawing of a quadruple expan- 
sion waterworks engine. Though a great effort was 
made from the time he was a year or so old to teach him 
Mother-Goose rhymes and other couplets, he never re- 
cited correctly the simplest verse until he was six years 
old ; nor has he ever been able to carry a tune correctly or 
sing a song, in spite of intensive and oft repeated attempts 
to teach him simple music. It is interesting to note, for 
instance, that "America" has been sung and played to 
him hundreds of times and even been played by him with- 
out his acquiring the ability to sing it. 

At five years of age this boy was sent to a fine private 
school where the teaching in the first grades was largely 
oral. When in the third grade he was placed in a sub- 
class for backward children because he was so retarded in 
number work. Though the boy made no progress in 
music nor in memorizing verses, this was not interpreted 
as of any significance, nor was any effort made to utilize 
his good visual powers in place of his defective powers of 
audition. When, however, his parents were told (by an 
unusually competent teacher) that the boy was not learn- 
ing arithmetic and was probably defective in this type of 
work, they themselves began to teach him by visual pres- 
entations. In two weeks he had not only mastered the 
work assigned the grade, but led his class. In the next 
two years, acquiring the power to learn by visualization, 
he accomplished the ordinary work of four school grades. 
Now, at fourteen, through extensive compensations, little 
difficulty arises; he transposes, probably often uncon- 
sciously, many auditory percepts into visual form. His 
own introspections, as well as his method of studying, 
show very conclusively that visual means are employed 
whenever possible. His powers of perceiving logical rela- 
tionships are extremely good, and these, together with his 
quite unusual visual gifts, enable him to maintain class 



224 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

standings considerably in advance of his years. It is 
interesting that even now his greatest disability is in 
regard to language ; in spite of all the advantages derived 
from the best of environmental conditions, the boy 
shows poor feeling in the use of English. In dealing 
with foreign languages there is great aptness displayed in 
learning the structural form, but quite a little trouble with 
achieving an idiomatic translation. It is evident that in 
this field he is hardly at all aided by sound. 

From such concrete examples of what must be fre- 
quently occurring in school life we can draw several prac- 
tical conclusions. One important point to emphasize 
is that our experience has shown us in large measure that 
unfortunately the present tendency in mental and edu- 
cational diagnosis is to emphasize only defects and dis- 
abilities, to grade the child down, rather than up. Little 
or no effort is made to discover if there are any gifts or 
unusual abilities that might offer hope for useful devel- 
opment. In contrast to this we must insist that if there 
is any desire to attain the greatest measure of success and 
usefulness, the good as well as the bad must be regarded, 
the positive as well as the negative aspects, the poten- 
tialities as well as the disabilities. 

What can be done to compensate for or to minimize 
defect can only be determined on the basis of the special 
conditions that exist in each individual case. In general 
the balance should be preserved between reasonable ex- 
penditure of time and energy and the value of the results 
that we may hope to achieve. To make no attempt to 
improve the defective condition will surely not be wise; 
what definite steps shall be undertaken and how long 
they shall be continued, depends in each case upon the 
original diagnosis and upon the improvement that fol- 
lows definite training of various types. The possibilities 
or the limitations can be learned only through experi- 



GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 225 

mental endeavors with each individual. If the defect 
is the direct cause of failure in a subject that can be 
learned in some other way, common sense alone would 
urge that methods be used based on the powers that 
would give mastery of the subject. After all, attain- 
ment of such mastery is the end, and means or methods 
used are valuable in direct proportion to the measure of 
success in achieving the end. 

Analysis of the mental processes which are elements in 
activities for which defect exists would seem to offer the 
greatest hope of rationally attacking the problems of 
specialized incapacity. We have attempted to make 
such analysis for school subjects in the case of language 
and number work. As experimentation progresses, much 
greater knowledge will, no doubt, be gained concerning 
the psychology of these and other complex activities as 
well as of the separate mental processes. This knowl- 
edge can then be applied in the solving of such problems 
as those of educational and vocational adjustments. 

The exact degree to which defective powers can be 
improved is not definitely known, no matter whether the 
defect concerns perception, memory, association, speed of 
reactions, or any other phase of mental life. But defi- 
nite training and practice are so generally effective — 
many experimental studies of the learning process also 
prove the fact — that it seems only fair to conclude that 
even where powers are exceedingly low they can be vastly 
increased by intensive training. 

To what extent visual, auditory, motor, or other types 
of presentation should be stressed in education can be 
determined only in the light of what is learned concern- 
ing the abilities and disabilities in each of these fields. 
If there is a defect in any one of these aspects of mental 
life, devices should be found for developing the defective 
power in as far as this is possible, while compensating 



226 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

powers should be utilized as well. The same general 
principle applies to the relative emphasis to be placed 
on either memory or reasoning, wherever the. problem 
is that of habituation versus rationalization. 

Where concepts are lacking, actual experience with the 
concrete should precede further efforts to master abstrac- 
tions. The step from the concrete to the abstract is 
often difficult for the child to make ; in consequence it is 
frequently necessary to help him in making this transi- 
tion. Specific devices will suggest themselves to every 
skillful teacher, once she is aware of the problem. 1 

There is less doubt about the procedure advisable for 
the utilization of special abilities. Surely, capacities 
that are found to exist should be trained intensively; 
they should be made to compensate for any other lack, 
in so far as this is possible. In them lies the greatest 
hope for the individual's future, not only from the stand- 
point of later vocational and industrial life, but also for 
the development of wholesome interests and moral wel- 
fare. 

At what age the study of the mental processes, through 
testing and other means, should be undertaken can only 
be answered in general terms. For several reasons, we 
believe that it should be begun as soon as possible 

1 Unfortunately, at the present time there is no standard work on the 
devices which may be utilized for the training of special abilities and dis- 
abilities. Here and there, widely scattered in the literature of special 
subjects, there may be found treatment of particular points. One may 
consult with most promise of help the good bibliographies of William 
Stern (" Differentielle Psychologie." Leipzig, 1911) and Ernst Meumann 
(" Vorlesungen zur Einfuhrung in die Experimented Padagogik." 1914) . 
In the American journals of education and psychology there are many 
articles that contain suggestions and hints. Of course, there are vol- 
umes on methods of teaching, both general and special, but none based 
on anything more than the main laws of mental life, laws which are 
applicable to all activities rather than to the peculiarities of special 
cases. In spite of much experimentation, little has been written con- 
cerning the training of the separate mental processes other than by 
practice, 



GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 227 

after there is reason to believe that the individual pre- 
sents a problem. Here, as elsewhere, one should not be 
needlessly anxious, remembering that some children 
learn slowly, and that frequently some time elapses be- 
fore the child adjusts himself to any new conditions of 
school life. When failure continues after a short period 
of training and effort, psychological study of the mental 
life should be made. 

The first and most obvious advantage of early investi- 
gation is the saving of time that would otherwise be 
wasted. The second is the prevention of discouragement 
and loss of interest. With the consciousness of failure 
there is, all too frequently, emotional disturbance leading 
to the development of a bad attitude, either towards the 
difficult subject or towards school in general. Frequently 
the child is subjected to teasing by his comrades, or to 
scolding by his teachers; sometimes friction arises at 
home as well as at school, and as a consequence of all 
these irritations, anti-social grudges are formed. Be- 
cause of these conditions, leading to lack of self-confi- 
dence and sometimes to excessive mental disturbances, we 
find that it is often extremely difficult to induce the older 
child or adolescent to make any efforts under systematic 
guidance to overcome the defects. Again and again we 
have seen that in spite of desire to master the difficulty, 
emotions may be stronger than ambition. 

One interesting discovery, mentioned several times inci- 
dentally in our case-histories, is the fact that occasionally 
the individual, as he grows older, realizes the cause of his 
failure and through his own effort, frequently clumsy, 
accomplishes more than years of school training had 
achieved. Because of this truth, we would urge that the 
teacher and vocational guide adopt the attitude of the 
scientist. If, for example, the teacher saw in each un- 
usual child a particular problem to be solved, if reactions 



228 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

were viewed in the light of their significance for the solu- 
tion of that problem, teaching would become vitalized. 
In the schoolroom and in the shop, valuable data could 
be gathered, various hypotheses tested, and experimental 
pedagogy evolved. The school, through the attitude of 
its teachers, could become an experimental station, — 
and experimental stations in connection with education 
are one of our most urgent needs. 

Indeed, it is only through cooperation of parent, 
teacher, vocational guide, and even employer with the 
clinical psychologist that headway can be made. The 
clinician can offer a prognosis and recommendations for 
practical procedure; but the truth of the prognosis 
and the value of the recommendations can be determined 
only by surveying them in the light of the results that 
follow directed efforts. Analysis of successes and fail- 
ures in the individual case is the only possible means of 
ultimately determining the correctness of a diagnosis and 
the efficacy of methods of treatment. And such critical 
evaluation, it may be added, is one essential requirement, 
needed almost more than anything else, for further devel- 
opment and growth of the science of clinical psychology. 

Scientific study of human reactions is in its infancy. 
With the further development of mental tests, with 
greater ability to interpret test results, with more knowl- 
edge of the correlations that exist between different men- 
tal functions, as well as between these and educational 
and vocational pursuits, we may hope for vastly greater 
understanding of the varied problems of mental disa- 
bilities and for wiser utilization of special abilities. 



APPENDIX 

Records op Psychological Examination 

To aid in interpreting the summaries of case-studies 
cited below, a brief description is here given of the tests 
used, which include the Binet-Simon scale, series of 1911 
unless otherwise stated; the Healy-Fernald tests, detailed 
description of which can be found in Psychological Mono- 
graph Number 54. To these are added a considerable num- 
ber of other tests described in many different books and 
journals. Other measuring scales are sometimes used, 
especially the Terman scale; frequently the latter is em- 
ployed as an alternative for retesting when the Binet scale 
has been previously used. Most of the cases reported were 
studied before the publication of the Yerkes-Bridges scale. 
The main tests include : — 

Introductory Test : — This is a combination of the form 
board with the picture puzzle. The seven pieces are quite 
dissimilar in shape and have distinctive parts of the picture 
printed on them, two are nearly interchangeable, and two 
are right triangles which fit into an equilateral triangle. 
These last two give a good opportunity for studying the 
subject's ability to profit by trial and error. 

Construction Test I : — This is a wooden frame into which 
five pieces are to be fitted. While there are a number of 
possible positions into which the various pieces can be put 
there is only one correct position for each piece, although 
any four of them can be placed in a number of ways. This 
test involves the subject's perception of space relationships 
and also shows his planfulness and ability to profit by past 
trials. 

229 



230 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Construction Test II : — This involves the same mental 
elements as the first construction test. It is, however, 
more complex, as there are many more alternative moves. 

The Puzzle Box : — The purpose of this test is to bring 
out abilities or defects in manipulative power and the abil- 
ity to analyze a slightly complicated concrete situation. 
The box is fastened by a series of strings passed over posts 
which can be unfastened only in a certain sequence. As 
one side of the box is glass, the entire arrangement can be 
seen. 

Cross Line Test I : — The investigator draws a large X 
on a sheet of paper in front of the subject, calling attention 
to the fact that the figure is made up of four parts. These 
are then numbered, the order in which the numbers are 
placed with regard to the figure being emphasized and after 
the subject has had ample chance to look at the model, it is 
turned over. The different angles are drawn one by one 
and the subject is asked to tell what number belongs in each. 
If he fails he is allowed to draw and number the figure him- 
self and try again. This and the two tests following involve 
the power of mental representation of the model, together 
with the ability to analyze it into its parts and recall the 
numbers corresponding to the parts. 

Cross Line Test II: — The procedure is the same as the 
above except that the figure is the one used by children in 
the game of " Tit-tat-to ", and is made up of nine parts. 

Code Test: — By combination of the two cross line tests 
a complete alphabetical code can be arranged. After the 
subject has studied it, it is turned over, and he is given a 
sentence to write in the code. Because of the greater num- 
ber of parts to be worked out from the subject's recollection 
of the general scheme, this test indicates ability to control 
mental processes as well as ability to grasp the idea of a 
code. 

Pictorial Completion Test : — This test is a picture repre- 
senting ten activities from which ten squares of equal size 
have been cut out so that on each piece is a part essential to 
the meaning of the whole. There are forty more pieces on 



APPENDIX 231 

which are drawn objects that do not logically complete the 
picture. The subject is told to insert the pieces that " make 
the best sense." The test indicates the subject's power of 
apperception with this type of material. 

The Ebbinghaus Completion Test : — This is the muti- 
lated text test where omitted words are to be supplied. The 
Trabue scales have been used since their publication. 

Arbitrary Association or Substitution Test: — This test 
shows the ability of the subject to form associations between 
a set of symbols and numerals. 

Tests of Memory for Logical Material : — Two passages, 
one to test auditory verbal and the other to test visual verbal 
memory are used. 

Tests for Memory Span : — Numerals are presented audi- 
torily and visually until the point is reached at which the 
subject makes an error. Sentences containing an increasing 
number of syllables are also used. 

Tests for Visual Memory : — The usual Binet visual test 
is supplemented by a number of other tests, including several 
similar in character. 

Tests for Remote Memory : — Reproduction of tests given 
at an earlier date, including not only memory passages, but 
tests for remembrance of form, events, etc. 

Tapping Test : — In this test for psychomotor control the 
subject inserts a dot as rapidly as possible in half inch squares 
without touching the lines or missing the squares. 

Tests for Controlled Association: — The subject is given 
a word to which he is to reply by a word bearing an assigned 
relationship to the stimulus word; the relationship may be 
that of opposite, genus-species, agent-object, mixed relation- 
ship, etc. The lists standardized by Woodworth and Wells 
are used ; the time reaction for each word is recorded. 

Kraepelin Addition and Subtraction Tests : — These are 
the well known continuous addition and subtraction tests 
used to gauge mental control. 

Aussage Test : — The butcher-shop picture is exposed for 
ten seconds, after which the subject gives a free account of 
what he has seen, followed by answers to direct questions. 



232 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES, 

Instruction Box : — Six steps are necessary to open a box. 
These steps are shown the subject, who then is to follow the 
directions given. The errors made and the number of trials 
required to open the box are recorded. 

Analogies Test : — We use the test as given in the Yerkes- 
Bridges, Terman, and other scales. The subject is to insert 
in each of five sentences a word bearing the same relationship 
to another given word as is shown in the first half of the sen- 
tence, e.g. " Oyster is to shell as banana is to — ." 

Tests for Arithmetical Reasoning : — We use the Terman 
test, placed at the 15-year level, and many other problems, 
according to age and school experience of the subject. 

Terman Ball and Field Test : — The problem is to devise 
the best and most economical method of finding a ball lost 
in a circular field of high grass. 

Link Chain Test : — Five pieces of chain, each consisting 
of three links, are to be joined by making not more than 
three cuttings. 

Stenquist Test for Mechanical Ability : — A number of 
models are placed before the subject together with the parts 
with which he can make the different objects by copying 
from the models. 

Woodworth- Wells Directions Tests : — The subject fol- 
lows directions given in printed form. Several sets are 
used ; in some the directions to be followed are more difficult 
than in others. 

Tests for Visual Perception Plus Attention : — The well 
known cancellation test. 

Questionnaire Tests for Ordinary Information. 

Tests for Common-sense Adaptations : — These include 
telling time, handling money, environmental orientation, etc. 

Still other tests are used in special cases for purposes of 
differential diagnosis. For example : — The Kent-Rosanoff 
Test; repetition of phrases requiring good auditory dis- 
crimination ; drawing floor plans ; Yerkes Multiple-Choice 
test ; some of the Rossolimo tests, particularly giving back- 
wards the months of the year and obeying several commands; 
Knox Cube test, etc. 



APPENDIX 233 



TEST KECORDS OF CASES GIVEN IN THE TEXT 

Case 1. Edith N. 12 years, 3 months. 

Binet grade : 9§ years. Failures : 8 years (4) ; 9 years 
(1); 10 years (3) and (4). Introductory Test: 3' 57", of 
which 2' 43" were spent on the triangles. Construction 
Test I : Failure. School Work : Writes from dictation " I 
had sone money and drop in river." Arithmetic : Adds 
simple combinations, e.g. 7 + 8 = 15 ; fails to add four 
3-place numerals. 

Second Testing 13 months later : 

Binet grade : Through 12 years. Introductory Test : 
2 r 5", of which l' 15" were spent on the triangles. Construc- 
tion Test 1 : 2' l", 22 moves. Construction Test II : l' 15", 
17 moves. Cross Line Test I: Correct third trial. Pic- 
torial Completion Test: 3' 32", 2 illogical errors. Easy 
Opposites Test: No errors or failures, average time 1.5". 
Auditory Memory Span : 6 numerals correct. School Work : 
Writes from dictation " The cat ran away." " The grirl gos 
to scholl." Reading 3rd-grade passage. Errors made on 
longer words, such as " autumn ", " frightened ", " opening." 
Reproduction is meager but correct. Still adds correctly 
2 numbers orally, but fails on 2-column addition. Cannot 
subtract. Knows only simplest combinations of the multi- 
plication table. 

Case 2. Adam F. 9 years. 

Binet : 6- and 7-year tests all correct ; 8-year tests correct, 
except (4) ; 9-year tests, 1, 3, and 5 correct ; fails (2) and 
(4). Cannot read or do number work. 

Case 3, Roland M. 12 years, 9 months. 

Binet : Passes all the 12-year tests correctly. Fails visual 
test of the 10-year group. (Notably good results achieved 
on many of these tests.) Introductory Test : 2' 30". Pic- 
torial Completion Test : 4' 3", no errors. (Time reaction 
lengthened by visual defect.) School Work : Writes from 



234 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

dictation " The printer made some cards." Arithmetic : 
Adds and subtracts ; knows simple number combinations. 
Reads 5th-grade passage somewhat slowly owing to* difficulty 
in seeing ; gives good reproduction. Recites stanzas from 
poems of Longfellow. 

Case 4. Caeoline J. 14 years, 3 months. 
Construction Test II : Complete failure. Cross Line Test 

1 : Correct at first trial. Cross Line Test II : Utter failure. 
(Could do nothing more at this time because of the girl's 
attitude ; she cried and made a scene. Diagnosis had to be 
left in abeyance.) 

Second Testing one year later : 

Binet : Through 10 years. (But not all of the Binet tests 
were given on account of the girl's attitude.) Construction 
Test I : 17", 6 moves ; good performance. Construction 
Test II : 2 r 14", 19 moves ; also a good result. Cross Line 
Test I : Correct first trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct at 
third trial ; not a good performance. Pictorial Completion 
Test : 2' 52" ; 2 errors, 1 logical and 1 illogical. Tapping 
Test : 87 and 90 squares respectively on first and second 
trial ; 1 error in each ; good performance. Memory for 
Logical Material — visual verbal presentation : Maintained 
that she could not remember at all the passage which she 
read ; said it was all gone from her after she had given the 
first item. Memory for Logical Material — auditory verbal 
presentation : 8 items given, but these were poorly phrased 
although in logical sequence ; altogether a distinctly poor 
result. Auditory Memory Span : only 5 numerals correct. 
Opposites Test : (Association for 20 easy opposites) 3 failures, 

2 errors ; average time 3". Kraepelin Subtraction Test : 
Very poor result on several trials, many errors made. Aus- 
sage : Very meager account given in free recital, only 7 
items ; on cross-examination 22 items given, but 8 of these 
were incorrect. However, only one out of seven suggestions 
offered was accepted. School Work : Reading : Equivalent 
of 5th-grade passage ; fluent, but without much expression ; 
only the harder words not known. Writing and Spelling : 



APPENDIX 235 

Writes neatly and rapidly ; fairly good hand. Arithmetic : 
Long division done with much erasing ; 1 error. 

Third Testing eighteen months later : 

Binet grade : Through all of the 10 and 12-year tests 
except (3) of the 12-year set. Cross Line Test II : Correct 
at first trial. Pictorial Completion Test : l' 50" ; 3 errors, 
2 illogical. Tapping Test : 95 and 93 squares respectively 
on first and second trial ; 1 and 2 errors respectively. Oppo- 
sites Test : (Another set of easy opposites) 3 errors, 2 fail- 
ures ; average time 2.1". Kraepelin Subtraction Tests : 
Subtracting 3 from 44, all correct, 33" ; subtracting 4 from 
51, 4 errors, l' 8". 

Case 5. Jasper B. 13 years, 7 months. 

Binet : The 9 and 10-year tests correct ; 12-year tests, 1 
and 3 correct, 2, 4, and 5 failures. Construction Test I : 6", 
6 moves. Construction Test II : 1', 15 moves. Cross Line 
Test I : correct second trial. Cross Line Test II : correct 
first trial. Pictorial Completion Test : 2' 18", 5 errors, 3 
illogical. Continuous Subtraction Test : 4 from 51, l', 
1 error. School Work : Writes "The boy go to school." 
Arithmetic : adds, subtracts, and multiplies correctly. 
Reads 3rd-grade passage fairly well ; gives meager but correct 
reproduction. 

Case 6. Jerome B. 16 years. 

First Testing : 

No psychological tests given because school work was done 
exceptionally well. Boy is in 8th grade. Solves correctly 
examples in adding, subtracting and multiplying fractions. 
Solves by ingenious method examples in interest. Has very 
good school record as regards ability. 

Second Testing two years, nine months later at correctional 
institution. 

Binet grade : 10J years. 8-year tests correct except (5) ; 
9-year tests all correct ; 10-year tests, 3, 4, and 5 correct, 
1 and 2 failures. 12-year tests, 1, 3, and 5 correct, 2 and 5 
failures; 15-year tests, 2 correct, 1, 3, and 5 failures. 



236 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Construction Test I: 52", 20 moves. Substitution Test: 
no errors. Hard Directions Test: 2 errors. School Work: 
Arithmetic, still solves examples in fractions and interest 
correctly. 

Third Testing 3 months after last testing : 

Binet : through the 12-year tests and three additional 
tests correct. All 10-year tests correct ; 12-year tests correct 
except (1) ; all 15-year tests except (3). (Very good results 
in many instances ; thus, gave 60 words in 25" ; interpreta- 
tion of pictures very good.) Auditory Memory Span : 8 
numerals correct. Easy Opposites Test : 1 error, average 
time 1.3". Reads difficult advertisement correctly and 
fluently ; gives good reproduction. 

Case 7. Willard Z. 15J years old. 

Binet : All the 10 and 12-year tests correct ; well and 
readily done. Construction Test I : 22", 7 moves ; very 
good result. Construction Test II : 53", 11 moves ; ex- 
tremely good result. Cross Line Test I : Correct first trial. 
Cross Line Test II : Failure on fourth trial. Pictorial Com- 
pletion Test : 2' 26" ; 1 logical error. Auditory Memory 
Span : Only 4 numerals correct. Fails on 5 numerals in 
each of four trials. Visual Memory Span : 7 numerals cor- 
rect ; fails on 8 numerals in each of three trials. School 
Work : Writes from dictation " The printer made some 
cards." Reading : 5th-grade passage, fluent, good expres- 
sion, and reproduction correct. Arithmetic : (written work) : 
Absolute failure on addition of four 3-place numerals. Sub- 
traction, multiplication and division failures. (Oral) : Fails 
on problems such as the following : 7+8+3X2. Says 
7 + 4 = 14, or 13, or 12. Subtracts correctly 7 from 50 
but says 100 — 8 = 90. Simple multiplication combinations, 
such as 8 X 5 correct ; but many others incorrect, e.g. 
9X9 = 63; 7X7 = 42. Adds change correctly, but 
even with money in his hand cannot make change. 
$1.00 - 87 i = 27 i ; $2.00 - $1.37 = 59 £ Says at 48 i a 
dozen 5 oranges cost 26 jf. 

Second Testing 3 months later : 



APPENDIX 237 

Cross Line Test II : Correct first trial. Easy Opposites 
Test : 1 error, no failures ; average time 1.7 . Arbitrary 
Association Test : no errors. Woodworth- Wells Easy Direc- 
tions Test : (first set) l' 55", 2 errors ; (second set) l' 32", 
no errors. Hard Directions Test : 2' 50", 4 errors. Auditory 
Memory Span : 4 numerals correct but only once in three 
trials. Memory for Logical Material — visual verbal presen- 
tation : 15 of 20 items in correct logical sequence. Memory 
for Logical Material — auditory verbal presentation : 10 of 12 
items ; logical sequence incorrect and little verbal accuracy ; 
ideas, however, correct. School Work : Reading difficult 
"Want Ad ", reproduction correct except for numbers; cannot 
remember the number of building and room at which to apply. 
Arithmetic : Fails again on addition, subtraction, multipli- 
cation, and long division, although he has been attending 
night school. Fails again to make change, e.g. $1.00 — 87 f£, 
and becomes utterly confused ; cannot make the change 
with money before him. Fails to return the change, e.g. 
50 <£ — 35^. Gives change correctly only when multiples 
of 5 are required. Cannot tell the cost of f of a dozen when 
1 dozen cost 24 £ ; fails on other similar problems. 

Case 8. Alfked T. 16J years old. 

Introductory Test : 2 r 35", no repetitions of errors. Con- 
struction Test I : 13", 6 moves ; remarkably good result. 
Construction Test II : 50", 11 moves (the smallest possible 
number), also notably good result. Puzzle Box : l' 20" ; 
very rapid perception of correct solution. Tapping Test: 
74 and 75 squares, respectively, at first and second trials; 
no errors* Instruction Box : Done correctly third trial 
(compare this rather poor result with good record on Puzzle 
Box). Cross Line Test I : Correct at third trial. Cross 
Line Test II : Correct first trial. Arbitrary Association Test : 
4 errors ; very poor result. Visual Memory — reproduction 
of Binet geometric figures : Result very good. Memory for 
Logical Material — visual verbal presentation : 17 of 20 
items given in correct logical sequence. Memory for Logical 
Material — auditory verbal presentation : 8 of 12 items given 



238 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

in correct sequence, inaccuracies in minor details. Easy 
Opposites Test : 2 failures ; 2 errors ; average time 3.2." 
School Work : Writes from dictation " The printer naid 
some cards." Reading : 5th-grade passage, reads " part " 
for "party", "man" for "men", "walk" for "work", 
mispronunciation, probably due to carelessness. Arithmetic : 
Adding five 3-place numerals, 1 error ; very slowly done. 
Has no conception of solution of simple problem in interest, 
although has had months of training in business course. 

Case 9. Maky L. 10 years, 9 months. 

Binet grade : 9f years. Failures : 9-year (1) ; 10-year, 
(2). Construction Test I : l' 35", 12 moves. Pictorial Com- 
pletion Test : 3' 34", 1 logical error. Auditory Memory 
Span: 5 numerals correct. School Work : Writes from 
dictation " I am going to school Tuesday ", and sentences of 
about equal difficulty. Reading : 3rd-grade passage, she 
fails on a few of the longer words, but reads fluently and 
with good expression. Arithmetic : adds simple number 
combinations slowly, e.g., 6 + 5 + 9 = 20 ; fails on sub- 
traction and multiplication. 

Second Testing 8 months later. 

Binet grade : through 10 years and 3 of the 12-year tests. 
Construction Test II : 2' 33", 17 moves. Cross Line Test I: 
correct first trial. Cross Line Test II : correct 4th trial, 
but only very slowly and with considerable effort. Arbitrary 
Association Test : no errors. Auditory Memory Span : 5 
numerals correct. School Work : Arithmetic (written) : 
adds four 3-place numerals correctly. Cannot subtract, for 
example, says 50 — 42 = 10 ; says 7 — 7 = 7. (Oral) 
Some combinations of multiplication table correct and others 
failures, e.g., 4 X 3 = 12 ; 4 X 8 = 32, but 4 X 6 = 22. 
Fails to give correct answer to, 25 j£ — 8j£ = ? ; 25^ — 
4 c 7 = ? ; says 10 ^ — 6j£ = 4c\ With actual change can- 
not add 50 i and 25 £, nor solve 50 £ — 42 e\ Given a quarter 
and asked to return the change after 18 ff is spent, shows 
much difficulty in mental representation of the problem. 
Counts the 18 ff in change and then tries to find what is 



APPENDIX 239 

needed to make up the 25 £, but since it cannot be done with 
the change before her, fails to solve the problem. 

Case 10. John T. 14 years, 10 months. 

Binet grade : Through the 12-year tests, and passes 1, 2, 
and 5 of the 15-year tests. Construction Test I : 1' 35", 
16 moves. Construction Test II : l' 2", 13 moves. Cross 
Line Test I : Correct on first trial. Cross Line Test II : 
Correct on second trial. Pictorial Completion Test : 2 r 27", 

1 logical error. School Work : Writes from dictation " The 
printer made some cards." 5th-grade passage read fluently 
and reproduction good. Arithmetic (written work) : fails 
to add four 3-place numerals ; cannot subtract, multiply, 
or divide. (Oral) : Gives correctly the combinations of the 
multiplication table. Says 5 apples plus 7 apples equal 12 ; 
8 apples plus 5 apples equal 15 ; says present year is 1915 
and that he is 14 years old and therefore was born in 1902. 

2 dimes equal 20 cents ; 2 nickels equal 10 cents ; 2 dimes, 
2 nickels and 2 pennies equal 95 cents ; a quarter and a 
nickel make 35 cents ; 50 cents minus 35 cents equals? 
(failure) ; a half dollar and a quarter makes $1.25. (All 
problems done with change before him.) If a dozen cost 
24 cents 5 cost? (failure). How many inches on the 4 sides 
of a 2-inch square? After 40 seconds says he does not know 
(restates the problem correctly). 

Case 11. Henry M. 10 years, 11 months. 

Introductory Test : l' ; perceptions very good, no trial 
and error used ; remarkably well done. Construction Test 
I : 20", 5 moves ; smallest number possible. Construction 
Test II : 30", 11 moves ; also smallest number possible. 
Puzzle Box : 1' 50", 3 errors ; planful procedure. Instruc- 
tion Box : 40" ; correct first trial ; rapidly and under- 
standing^ done. Tapping Test : 63 and 70 squares on 
first and second trial respectively, 1 and 2 errors. Pictorial 
Completion Test : Y 45", no errors. Cross Line Test I : 
Correct on first trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct on first 
trial. Visual Memory Test — reproduction of Binet figures ; 



240 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Well done. Auditory Memory Span : 6 numerals correct. 
Memory for Logical. Material — visual verbal presentation : 
12 of 20 items ; 1 change in logical sequence. Memory for 
Logical Material — auditory verbal presentation : 11 of 12 
items correct ; correct sequence and fair verbal accuracy. 
Arbitrary Association Test : no errors ; done promptly. 
School Work : Writes from dictation, " The preuter made 
some cards." Arithmetic (written) : Fails to add four 
4-place numerals ; fails on long division ; makes errors here 
in process of division and in subtraction. (Oral) : Gives 
the combinations of multiplication tables correctly ; says 
4x6+7-8 = 16; 5x7+6-8 = 15; is able to 
restate problems. 

Case 12. Lillian M. 14 years, 11 months. 

Introductory Test : 38" ; very quick perception ; no trial 
and error used. Construction Test I : 27", 10 moves. 
Construction Test II : 40", 11 moves. Tapping Test : 76 
and 90 squares, first and second trial respectively ; no errors. 
Cross Line Test I : Correct on first trial. Cross Line Test 
II : Correct on first trial. Code Test : 2 errors. Pictorial 
Completion Test : 3' 8", 2 logical errors and 1 illogical error. 
School Work : Writes from dictation, " The printer made 
some cards." Reading : 5th-grade passage read fluently. 
Arithmetic (written) : Adds correctly five 4-place numerals 
— slowly done ; multiplication and long division failure. 
(Oral): Subtracting continuously 7 from 100, 1' 32", 10 
errors. 

Case 13. Arthur L. 17 years old. 

Binet grade : Through 12-year, no errors ; tests done 
rapidly and well. Construction Test I : 3' 21", 42 moves. 
Construction Test II : 46", 12 moves. Cross Line Test II : 
Correct on first trial. Opposites Test : No errors or fail- 
ures ; average time 1.4". School Work : Writes from dic- 
tation, " The printer made some cards." Reading : 5th 
grade well read, fair reproduction. Arithmetic (written) : 
Fails on long division ; numerous errors in multiplication 



APPENDIX 241 

and occasional errors in subtraction. (Oral) : says $2.00 less 
$1.57 equals 48 cents ; at 36 cents a dozen 5 oranges cost 
6J cents. Subtracting continuously 7 from 100, 2' 12", 
9 errors. 

Case 14. Adolph J. 15 years, 8 months. 

Binet grade : Through 12-year tests ; 3 of the 15-year 
tests correct ; fails the first and third, which are memory 
tests. (It should be noted that extremely good records were 
made on most of the Binet tests ; the answers were very 
quick and relevant.) Construction Test I : 13" ; 8 moves. 
Construction Test II : l' l" ; 16 moves. Tapping Test : 52 
and 60 squares, first and second trial respectively, no errors. 
Pictorial Completion Test : 2' 50" ; 3 logical errors. Cross 
Line Test I : Correct first trial. Cross Line Test II : Cor- 
rect first trial. Arbitrary Association Test : No errors. 
Easy Opposites Test : No errors or failures ; average time 
1 . 3". Visual Memory Span — reproduction of Binet figures : 
Drawn correctly. Visual Memory Span — for numerals : 
6 numerals correct. Auditory Memory Span for numerals : 
4 numerals correct in each of the three trials, 5 numerals 
correct twice in six trials ; 6 numerals a failure. Auditory 
Memory Span for Syllables : 16 syllables correct, 18 syllables 
failure. Memory for Logical Material — visual verbal 
presentation : 13 out of 20 items, correct sequence, fair 
verbal accuracy. Memory for Logical Material — auditory 
verbal presentation : 11 items out of 12, sequence correct, 
fair verbal accuracy. (Says, " I saw this like a picture 
when it was read to me.") Aussage Test : Very full and 
accurate free account, showing good powers of perception ; 
good account in response to questions ; accepts 2 out of 7 
suggestions offered. Analogies Test : 4 of 5 problems cor- 
rect. Terman Arithmetical Reasoning Test : All 3 prob- 
lems correct. Continuous Subtraction Test : 7 from 100, 
l' 7" ; no errors. (Toward the end made one mistake, 
later said " I made one mistake ; it should have been ", 
etc. and corrected it.) Test for Auditory Perception : Fails 
to repeat correctly difficult; sentences. (See case-study, 



242 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

p. 95, for details.) School Work : Arithmetic : Adds four 
3-place numerals correctly. Knows the combinations of the 
multiplication table ; subtracts correctly ; cannot do long 
division. (It should be remembered that because of special 
defect in reading he never went farther than the 4th grade.) 
See, also, Terman Arithmetical Reasoning and Continuous 
Subtraction Test. Writing : Writes a good, legible hand. 
Spelling : Writes from dictation " Dog run on steerts " ; 
" The gril go to school " ; " The print mad soom card." 
(Was uncertain whether " print " was " painter " or " print- 
er. ") Reading : On 2nd-grade passage fails on many words, 
such as " heart " " leaves ", " often ", " twig ", etc. On 
3rd-grade passage shows much hesitancy, fails on many 
words. 5th-grade passage practically a failure. Makes 
some effort to read with expression ; reproduction quite good. 

Case 15. James M. 15 years, 2 months. 

Introductory Test : l'. Construction Test I : 1' 7", 29 
moves. Puzzle Box : 2' 10" ; 1 error ; good result, logical 
procedure. Tapping Test : 88 and 89 squares first and second 
trials respectively; 1 and 4 errors. Cross Line Test I : Cor- 
rect on first trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct on second 
trial. Code Test : 4 errors ; 3 dots omitted. Easy Oppo- 
sites Test : 3 errors ; average time 1.1". Visual Memory 
Span — reproduction of Binet figures : Both incorrect first 
trial ; correct second trial. (For details see case-study, 
p. 98.) Memory for Logical Material — visual verbal pres- 
entation : 16 items out of 20, incorrect sequence. (For de- 
tails see case-study.) Memory for Logical Material — audi- 
tory presentation : 10 items out of 12 correct ; only 1 item 
not in logical sequence. School Work : Adds, subtracts, 
multiplies, and divides correctly. Writes from dictation 
" The printer made some cards." Reading : 5th-grade 
passage read very poorly, fails on many words, including 
such simple ones as " field ", " shore, " " crib", etc. 

Case 16. Walter Z. 11 years old. 
Introductory Test : l' 19". Construction Test I : Fail- 
ure ; very poor attempt. Construction Test II : 44", 11 



APPENDIX 243 

moves ; very good record. Puzzle Box : 2 f 3", 3 errors. 
Instructions Box : Correct on second trial. Cross Line Test 
I : Failure on third trial. Cross Line Test II : Failure on 
third trial. Visual Memory — reproduction of Binet figures: 
Extremely well done. Arbitrary Association Test : No 
errors. School Work : Cannot read ; does not know letters. 
Arithmetic : Adds two single digits, e.g. 4 + 2 = 6. 

Second Testing 1 year later : 

Binet grade : Through 9 years. Failures : 8 years, (2) 
and (4) ; 9 years, (2) and (4) ; 10 years, (3) and (5) ; 12 
years, (2), (3), (4), (5). Cross Line Test I : Correct first 
trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct first trial. School Work : 
Reading : Recognized only two words in lst-grade passage. 
Writes from dictation " I see the cat ", but no more difficult 
sentence. 

Third Testing 2 years after last testing : 

Binet grade : All of 10-year and 3 of 12-year tests correct. 
Failures : 12-years, (4) and (5). Construction Test I : l' 
45", 28 moves. (Of these only one move was an impossi- 
bility.) Construction Test II : 23", 11 moves. Puzzle Box: 
36", very well done. Cross Line Test I : Correct first trial. 
Code Test : Failure (6 errors). Pictorial Completion Test: 
3' 28", 1 logical error. Arbitrary Association Test : No 
errors. Auditory Memory Span : 6 numerals correct. 
Memory for Logical Material — auditory verbal presenta- 
tion : 9 of 12 items, good logical sequence, but poorly ex- 
pressed. School Work : Reading : Fails on nearly all 
words of lst-grade passage. Writing and Spelling : In writ- 
ing from dictation " The boy went to school ", does not 
attempt the words " went " and " school." Writes a firm, 
legible hand. Arithmetic : Adds column of five 1 -place 
numerals correctly ; does not know process of carrying. 

Fourth Testing 2 years after last testing : 

Binet grade : All 12-year tests correct ; all 15-year tests 
correct except (3). Easy Opposites Test : 3 errors, average 
time 2.1". School Work : Reading : In simple passage 
fails on such words as " fast ", " were ", " cold ", etc. Reads 
lst-grade passage haltingly ; fails on " dig ", " elephant." 



244 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Says he cannot read the newspaper, " there are too many 
long words." Writing and Spelling : Writes from dictation 
" The girl went to school " ; " The beard make som cars" 
(The printer made some cards). He has learned to write 
correctly a number of difficult words, e.g., " Washington ", 
" Mississippi ", and " Constantinople." Says he has con- 
sciously learned to remember how these words " look." 
Arithmetic : Adds correctly. Adds money, makes change, 
does orally simple problems involving money. Has never 
been taught multiplication and division. 

Case 17. Harold N. 11 years old. 

Binet grade : Passes all of the 10-year and 2 of the 12- 
year tests. Fails 12 year, (3) and (4), (5) not given. (Not- 
ably good answers to common-sense questions, quick detec- 
tion of absurdities, good language ability.) Introductory 
Test : 2' 2". Construction Test 1 : 2' 57" ; 22 moves. (One 
hour later does this in 12", 5 moves.) Construction Test II: 
2' 49" ; 22 moves. (Thoughtfully done ; rational trial and 
error method ; no repetition of errors.) Cross Line Test I : 
Correct on second trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct on 
second trial. Pictorial Completion Test : 4' 2" ; 1 logical 
and 1 illogical error. Arbitrary Association Test : No errors. 
Aussage : gives good functional account ; on cross-examina- 
tion, many details. Visual Memory — reproduction of 
Binet figures : Correct. Auditory Memory Span : 6 nu- 
merals correct. Memory for Logical Material — auditory 
verbal presentation : 7 out of 12 items. Incorrect logical 
sequence. (Used as test for remote memory 48 hours later, 
6 out of 12 items.) Memory for Logical Material — visual 
verbal presentation : Not given, cannot read passage. 

Tests for remote memory 5 days after first trial: Con- 
struction Test I : 28", 10 moves. Fails to place correctly 
numerals on figure Cross Line Test I. Draws correctly 1 out 
of 2 Binet geometrical figures ; cannot remember the other 
figure. Sings correctly melody and words of song learned in 
school. Remembers correctly 6 of the 9 simple geometric 
forms of the arbitrary association test. 



APPENDIX 245 

School Work : Arithmetic : Adds correctly single column 
figures ; knows simple number combinations ; gives correct 
answer to simple problems, e.g. : If 3 cost 15 cents, how much 
would 2 cost? If 9 apples were divided equally among 3 
children, how many would each receive? Adds correctly a 
quarter, a dime, a nickel, and a penny, etc. Spelling : 
Writes his own name correctly. Cannot write any sentence 
from dictation. Writes " run ", " nam " (man), " can ", 
" onj " (and). Says his teacher has made him write these 
many times. One week later misspells his surname in writ- 
ing it ; orally spells it correctly. Cannot identify all the 
letters of the alphabet. Reading : Fails to read first grade 
passage; knows only " I can." Reads numerals. 

Second Testing 9 months later: 

School Work : Has learned the multiplication tables. 
Still cannot write any sentence from dictation or any from 
his own invention. Has learned to write four words, namely, 
"man", "can", "his", "and." Reading: Fails on 1st- 
grade passage. Doesn't know the following words : " Not ", 
" am ", " dig." Remote Memory : Retells details of picture 
used in Aussage test fully and well. 

Third Testing 1 month later : 

Writes " ral " for " rat ", " see " for " the." Reading : 
No improvement. General information quite fair for oppor- 
tunities. Conversational ability normal. Record in manual 
training room very good ; is said by teacher to copy well, to 
follow directions, and to have quite a little ability to plan 
and invent. 

Case 18. Richard T. 15 years. 

Binet grade : All 10-year and three 12-year tests correct. 
Failure : 12 years, (4) ; (5) not given. Construction Test I: 
12", 6 moves. Construction Test II : 13", 11 moves. Cross 
Line Test I : Correct first trial. Cross Line Test II : Cor- 
rect first trial. Pictorial Completion Test : 3' 37" ; 2 logical 
and 1 illogical error. Visual Memory — reproduction of 
Binet figures : Correctly drawn. Aussage Test : Gives very 
full but quite inaccurate recital. Suggestible. School Work : 



246 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Reading : 3rd-grade passage read poorly ; fails on all but 
simplest words. Writing and Spelling : Writes from dicta- 
tion " The boy went to school." Arithmetic : Adds four 
3-place numerals correctly. Subtracts and multiplies cor- 
rectly. 

Case 19. Thomas S. 15 years. 

Introductory Test : 3' 5" ; much of time spent on triangles. 
Construction Test I : 3', 26 moves. Cross Line Test I : 
Correct first trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct third trial. 
School Work : Writes from dictation " The pre made soom 
c." (The printer made some cards). Arithmetic : Adds 
3-place numerals and multiplies promptly. 

Second Testing one day later : 

Construction Test II : 40", 11 moves. Puzzle Box : l' 
45", 1 error. Tapping Test : 70 and 77 squares respectively 
at first and second trial ; no errors. Arbitrary Association 
Test : No errors. Memory for Logical Material — auditory 
verbal presentation : 11 of 12 items given ; incorrect logical 
sequence. Peculiarly disconnected, short phrases ; English 
very poor. Easy Opposites : 3 failures ; average time 2.7". 
School Work : Reads some few monosyllables only. 

Third Testing three months later : 

Reading : Somewhat better ; knows a few more words, 
but fails on three words (elephant, dig, ground) in four lines 
of a lst-grade passage. Writing and spelling : Writes from 
dictation " See the dog on the Street", "The cat rouns fast." 

Case 20. Rupert N. 16 years. 

Construction Test I : 20", 5 moves. Construction Test 
II : l' 4", 12 moves. Cross Line Test I : Correct first trial. 
Cross Line Test II : Correct first trial. Pictorial Completion 
Test : 2', 1 logical error. School Work : Reading : Reads 
3rd-grade passage fairly well ; all words read correctly ; not 
much expression ; reproduction fairly good. Writing and 
Spelling : Writes from dictation " The pter made son cards " 
(The printer made some cards), " I neear waet ene plaes 
atsed in Chicago " (I never went anyplace outside of Chicago). 



APPENDIX 247 

Arithmetic : Adds correctly ; in long division makes one 
careless error ; multiplies simple numbers ; fails on tables 
of 7's and 8's. 

Second Testing five days later : 

Binet grade : Through 10 years. Failures : 10 years, 
(5) ; 12 years, (1), (2), (4), (5). Puzzle Box : l' 9", 2 errors. 
Tapping Test : 74 and 73 squares respectively, first and 
second trial, and 2 errors respectively. Cross Line Test II : 
Correct first trial. (Lettering changed from arrangement 
used previously.) Visual Memory — reproduction of Binet 
figures : Correct. Easy Opposites : 6 errors, 2 failures ; 
average time 2.8"; range 1.4"-7.8". 

Third Testing one week after second testing : 
Code Test : 3 errors on first trial (was not trying) ; 1 
error on second trial. 

Fourth Testing four months after third testing : 
Binet : All the 10-year tests correct. Failures : 12 years, 
(4) and (5) ; 15 years, (1), (2), (4). Easy Opposites (new 
list of words) : 1 error ; average time 1.9" ; range 1 -5." 
Kraepelin Subtraction Test : Subtracting 7 from 100 ; 3' 
42", 1 error. Subtracting 4 from 51, 2', 1 error. School 
Work : Writes from dictation " The priter mead sen cerds " 
(The printer made some cards). Arithmetic : Adds and 
subtracts correctly. 

Case 21. Henry J. 16 years. 

Binet : All 10-year tests correct. 12-year tests, failed 
only on (4). Construction Test II : 36", 11 moves. Cross 
Line Test I : Correct on first trial. Cross Line Test II : 
Correct on second trial. Code Test : 4 errors. Easy Oppo- 
sites : 1 error, average time 1.6." Arbitrary Association 
Test : No errors. Memory for Logical Material — visual 
verbal presentation : 15 of 20 items given in logical sequence. 
Memory for Logical Material — auditory verbal presenta- 
tion : 11 of 12 items given, slight changes in logical sequence. 
(Retells correctly stories told in Binet absurdities test.) 
Auditory - Memory Span : 4 numerals only. Fails on 5 
numerals in each of six trials. Visual Memory Span: 5 



248 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

numerals correct. Cannot remember two telephone num- 
bers of 4 numerals each. Memory Span for Syllables : 14 
syllables correct. One slight error on both 16 and 18 syllables. 
School Work : Reads 3rd-grade passage fairly well ; gives 
good reproduction. Writes from dictation " The boy goes 
to school ", " The printer made some cards." Adds, sub- 
tracts, multiplies, and divides correctly. 

Case 22. Benjamin L. 20 years old. 

Binet : Through 12 and 15-year tests correctly. All adult 
tests correct except (5). Tests involving mental representa- 
tion, i.e. adult (1) and (2), correct only slowly and with diffi- 
culty. Construction Test I : 11", 5 moves. Construction 
Test II : 33", 11 moves. Cross Line Test I : Correct first 
trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct first trial. Code Test : 
2 errors. Pictorial Completion Test : 2' 50", 2 illogical 
errors. (It should be added that this test presents certain 
definite features for adults. For discussion see Psych. Rev., 
May, 1914.) Opposites Test : No errors or failures, average 
time l". Association Test, object — attribute : No errors 
or failures ; average time 1.5". Memory for Logical Ma- 
terial — visual verbal presentation : 19 of 20 items given, 
correct logical sequence, only slight verbal changes. (Com- 
pare with failure on adult (5) Binet.) Memory for Logical 
Material — auditory verbal presentation: 11 of 12 items 
given, correct logical sequence, only slight verbal changes. 
Visual Memory Span : 9 numerals correct. Reproduction 
of Binet figures : correct. Auditory Memory Span : 12 
numerals correct ; 13 numerals, one numeral transposed. 
Memory Span for Syllables : 32 syllables correct. (Not 
tried further.) Hard Directions Test : 3 r 5", no errors. 
Analogies Test : Four correct ; 1 error. Terman Arith- 
metical Reasoning Test : 1 correct ; 2 failures. Terman 
Ball and Field Test : Correct. Terman Link Chain Test : 
Correct. 

Case 23. Peter R. 11 years old. 

Introductory Test : 56". Construction Test I : 46", 16 
moves. Construction Test II : l' l", 21 moves. Pictorial 



APPENDIX 249 

Completion Test : 4' 27", 1 logical and 1 illogical error. 
Cross Line Test II : Correct first trial. Arbitrary Associa- 
tion Test : 3 errors. Memory for Logical Material — audi- 
tory verbal presentation : 10 of 12 items given, logical se- 
quence and verbal accuracy good. School Work : Reading : 
only a few words of lst-grade passage read. Writing and 
Spelling : Writes own name poorly and three words, " The 
cat run." Arithmetic : Adds single column of four numerals 
by counting on fingers ; cannot subtract ; gives the tables 
of 2's and 3's by adding on fingers and by making marks. 
Asked how much is $1.00 less 60 cents, makes one hundred 
marks, counts off sixty and then counts the remainder. 

Second Testing following day : 

Binet grade : 9f years. Failures : 8-year, (4) ; 9-year, 
(4) ; 10-year, (3) and (4) ; 12-year, (3), (4) and (5). Memory 
Span for Numerals : 6 correct. Construction Test I : 13" ; 
5 moves. Cross Line Test I : Correct on first trial, 
(promptly). Arbitrary Association Test : No errors. 

Third Testing 10 months later : 

Binet grade : 9f . Failures : the same as previously, 
except 10-year (3) now correct, 12-year (2) now failure. 
Cross Line Test II : Correct on first trial. Pictorial Com- 
pletion Test : 2' 53", 1 logical error. Arbitrary Association 
Test : Correct. (All these tests given to find whether any 
deterioration or improvement.) Easy Opposites Test : 2 
errors, average time 1.8". School Work : Reading : No 
improvement, reads only very few of even simple words. 
Writing and Spelling : Has added no new words to writing 
vocabulary. Arithmetic : Still adds a column of single 
figures by counting ; no new process learned. General In- 
formation : Exceedingly poor ; knows the president in office, 
but not who preceded him nor who was first president ; 
cannot tell time ; cannot tell year in which born, although 
knows present year and own age ; cannot name the month, 
nor the day of the week ; knows nothing about the city, 
except how to reach the laboratory from his home ; geo- 
graphical and historical items all failures. 

Fourth Testing 3 months later : 



250 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Binet grade : same as previously. Terman Scale : Passes 
9-year tests and 10-year (4). Visual Memory — reproduc- 
tion of Binet and other figures : correct. Cross Line Test II 
(renumbered) : Correct on first trial. Instructions Box : 
Failure on third trial due to inability to find the numbers on 
the dial ; other steps of process correct. Auditory Memory 
for Syllables : 20 correct. School Work : No improvement 
in reading or spelling. Arithmetic : Has improved in addi- 
tion ; has learned the process of carrying, but fails in sub- 
traction ; has learned the simpler combinations of multipli- 
cation table, but fails on difficult ones. Makes simple 
change, e.g., 50^ less 27 i, correct, but fails on $1.00 less 66 f£. 

Fifth Testing 1 month later : 

Re-testing on failures in the Binet series, still fails 8-year 
(4), but now gives 9-year (4) correctly ; gives correctly 12- 
year (2) ; still fails 12-year (3) and (4), but makes better 
record than ever before on (3). Memory Span for Numerals : 
6 numerals correct, one trial in three ; 7 numerals complete 
failure. Memory for Syllables : 24 correct, fails on 26. 
Knox Cube Test : Parts (a) (b) (c) correct on first trial ; 
part (d) correct on second trial ; part (e) correct on third trial. 
Special Tests for Remote Memory (besides the various 
tests given above) : Fails completely to remember the simple 
geometric figures of the substitution test, which he has had 
three separate times. Fails to remember any of the passages 
used for testing immediate auditory verbal memory, — does 
not even remember that he had such a test a year previously. 
Fails to tell time, birthday, the current month, etc., in spite 
of recent intensive training. Remembers vaguely parts of 
Construction Test II, but relationships extremely poor. For 
other items see the text. Aussage : Gives good free account 
enumerating all the prominent objects and some of the less 
prominent ones ; on cross-examination gives many more 
details. Somewhat inaccurate, adds fictional items, not sug- 
gestible. Recognition Memory : Shown 5 pictures, selects 
them promptly from among ten later presented. General 
Information : Still fails to tell time ; fails to give the date ; 
cannot tell his birthday. School Work : Fails on simple 



APPENDIX 251 

problem in multiplication ; does simple example in subtrac- 
tion in which he has had drill just two days previously ; 
solves correctly problem, " If you make $4.00 a week and 
spend $2.00 a week, how long would it take you to save 
$6.00? " 

Case 24. Harry R. 14 years, 9 months. 

Binet grade : Through 12 years. Failures : 9-year, (4) ; 
10-year, (2) ; passes 15-year (1), (4), and (5). Construc- 
tion Test I : Failure in 5'. Construction Test II : Failure 
in 5 r . Cross Line Test I : Failure on 4th trial. Cross Line 
Test II : Failure on 4th trial. Pictorial Completion Test : 
3' 20" 1 logical error. Easy Opposites Test : No errors or 
failure ; average time 2.2/' Arbitrary Association Test : 3 
errors. Auditory Memory Span : 8 numerals correct. 
Visual Memory Span — reproduction of Binet figures : 
Failure. Reproduction of two other figures similar in char- 
acter, failure ; cannot draw facade of own house ; cannot draw 
floor plan of own home. Memory for Syllables : Repro- 
duced 24 syllables correctly. Memory for Logical Material 

— visual verbal presentation : 12 of 20 items, correct se- 
quence, fair verbal accuracy. Memory for Logical Material 

— auditory verbal presentation : 10 of 12 items, good verbal 
accuracy. School Work : Arithmetic : (Oral.) Knows 
combinations in addition and multiplication ; makes 1 error 
in adding four 3-place numerals. Subtraction correct ; long 
division, process correct, but several inaccuracies. Prob- 
lems ; at 36^ a dozen 4 cost 12 e\ etc., promptly. Writing : 
Writes a fair, legible hand ; writes from dictation " The 
prenter mad some cors." Reading : 3rd grade passage read 
slowly ; numerous inaccuracies ; fails on fairly simple words, 
e.g., " frightened " ; called saw " snow ", etc. Reproduc- 
tion good. Catch phrases correctly repeated. 

Case 25. Edgar M. 11 years. 

Binet : All tests through 15-year age-level correct except 
12-year (4). 12-year (3), correct only on second trial. Con- 
struction Test I : 1' 25", 14 moves. Construction Test II : 
1' 3", 13 moves. Puzzle Box : 4' 1", 2 errors. (1' 55" 



252 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

spent in studying situation.) 5' 20" to put box together 
again. Tapping Test : 48 and 56 squares, respectively, first 
and second trial, no errors. Cross Line Test I : Correct on 
first trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct on first trial. Pic- 
torial Completion Test : 5' 4", no errors. (Much time re- 
quired to find the correct pieces. Perceptions slow ; apper- 
ceptions rapid.) Arbitrary Association Test : No errors ; 
V 57" required to place numerals in learning part. Visual 
Memory Span : 6 numerals correct with one exposure ; 7 
numerals correct with two exposures ; 8 numerals correct 
with three exposures. (Translates probably into auditory 
terms.) Auditory Memory Span : 8 numerals correct, one 
reading. Memory for Logical Material — visual verbal 
presentation : 13 of 20 items given ; correct logical sequence. 
Memory for Logical Material — auditory verbal presenta- 
tion : 11 of 12 items given ; correct logical sequence. Easy 
Opposites Test : No errors or failures ; average time 1.4". 
Easy Directions Test : 4' 32", 1 error. Hard Directions 
Test : Time ? no errors. Analogies Test : All correct. 
Aussage : Free recital, 5 items. Cross-examination, 14 
items correct ; 7 errors ; replies " Don't know " 9 times, 
and " Not sure " 2 times. Denies seeing two prominent 
objects ; no suggestions accepted. School Work : Reading : 
5th-grade passage fluent, but tires of it. Spelling and Writ- 
ing : Spelling comparatively poor. Writes very slowly and 
poorly ; requires much effort. (Spelling taught him by 
writing ; oral recitations only once a week.) Arithmetic : 
Adds, subtracts, multiplies correctly. Fails on long division. 
Makes change slowly. Fails on simple problems, e.g., At 
48 cents a dozen, how much would 5 cost? Enjoys French 
lessons ; does well ; this subject taught entirely by auditory 
method. Fond of music, good sense of rhythm. 

Case 26. Melvin W. 15 years. 

Binet grade : Through 12-year tests ; no failures. Con- 
struction Test I : Failure in 5' '. Construction Test II : 4 r 
6", 40 moves ; trial and error method ; many repetitions of 
errors. Puzzle Boz : Failure in 10' ; correct, after many 



APPENDIX 253 

errors, in 11' l". Cross Line Test I : Correct on first trial. 
Cross Line Test II : Correct on first trial. Pictorial Com- 
pletion Test : 3' 5" ; 1 logical and 1 illogical error. Audi- 
tory Memory Span : 6 numerals correct. Visual Memory — 
reproduction of Binet figures : Correctly done. School 
Work : Reading, 3rd-grade passage read poorly ; fails on 
longer words. Writing and Spelling : Writes from dictation 
" The preuter maid som cards " (The printer made some 
cards). Arithmetic : One error in adding four 3-place 
numerals. Short division correct. Errors in subtraction. 
Fails on long division. Knows multiplication tables. 

Second Testing three months later : 

Introductory Test : l' 10". Construction Test I : 14", 
6 moves. (Probably due to accident.) Construction Test 

11 : Failure in 5'. Puzzle Box : l' 9" ; 2 errors ; cannot 
put the box together. Stenquist Tests : All models copied 
in 27'. Terman Ball and Field Test : Very poor failure. 
Yerkes Multiple Choice Test : Problem I, correct on 18th 
trial. Problem II, correct on 15th trial. Problem III, correct 
on 10th trial. Problem IV, correct on 5th trial. Tapping 
Test : 59 and 56 squares respectively, first and second trial ; 
8 errors on first trial, errors on second. (Made very great 
effort.) Arbitrary Association Test : No errors. Memory 
for Logical Material — auditory verbal presentation : 10 of 

12 items given ; correct logical sequence ; English poor. 
Easy Opposites Test : 1 error ; average time 1.6". Wood- 
worth-Wells Easy Directions Test : l' 58", 3 errors. Ter- 
man Arithmetical Reasoning Test : Correct (2 out of 3). 
School Work : Reading, some improvement on 3rd-grade 
passage ; fewer words mispronounced, but read haltingly. 
Writing and Spelling : Writes from dictation " The printer 
made some cards/' Arithmetic : Adds and subtracts cor- 
rectly examples previously failed. Multiplies correctly. 
Has not yet learned long division. 

Case 27. Alexander T. 13 years, 9 months. 
Binet grade : Correct through 12 years, except 12, (4). 
Construction Test I : 4' 30", 56 moves (of these 14 were 



254 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

impossibilities). Construction Test II : Failure in 5'. Sten- 
quist Test : Failure in 30' ; errors on the lock, and the star 
was a failure. Tapping Test : 76 and 69 squares 1st and 2nd 
trials respectively, and and 1 error respectively. Instruc- 
tions Box : Correct on second trial. Cross Line Test I : 
Correct 1st trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct 1st trial. 
Pictorial Completion Test : 2' 15", 2 logical errors. School 
Work : Arithmetic : Does long division correctly. Writing : 
Writes rapid legible hand. Spelling : Writes " The printer 
made some cards." Reading : 5th-grade passage read 
fluently. 

jCase 28. Arthur R. 17 years. 

(Testing done on two days, one immediately following the 
other, reported together.) 

Binet : 12-year tests all correct, but (2) very slowly 
answered ; (3), 60 words in 2' 30". 15-year tests : fails on 
(1) and (3) ; (5) answered very slowly. Adult tests : (2) 
solved when allowed to ponder overnight ; (3) slowly and 
poorly done ; (4) slowly and poorly done. 

Construction Test I : 1' 18", 12 moves. Construction 
Test II : 2' 2", 26 moves. Puzzle Box : 6' 12". (5' study 
before first move made ; then only 1 error, though l' 12" 
required to complete.) Tapping Test : 98 and 101 squares 
respectively, first and second trials, and 5 errors respec- 
tively. Pictorial Completion Test : 3' 35". No errors. 
(Very slow reactions for age.) Arbitrary Association Test : 
2 errors on first trial ; no errors on second trial. Visual 
Memory — reproduction of Binet figures : Correct. Audi- 
tory Memory Span : 6 numerals correct. Memory for Logi- 
cal Material — visual verbal presentation : 16 of 20 items 
given ; correct sequence. Memory for Logical Material — 
auditory verbal presentation : 10 of 12 items given, 2 items 
transposed. Easy Opposites Test : No errors or failures, 
average time 1.6". Kraepelin Subtraction Test : Subtract- 
ing 7 from 100 ; l' 13", no errors. Terman Link Chain 
Test : Failure first day ; solved correctly overnight. Ter- 
man Ball and Field Test : Poor attempt. Sharp's Ethical 



APPENDIX 255 

Questions answered very slowly, but fully comprehended. 
School Work : Reading : excellent. Writing and Spelling : 
Writes from dictation " The printer made some cards." 
Arithmetic : Adds nine 3-place numerals correctly, but 
slowly ; long division, 1 error. 

Case 29. Agnes Z. 8 years. 

Binet grade : Through 7 years. Failures : 5 years, (1) ; 
6 years, (3) ; 7 years, (4) ; 8 years, (1), (2), (4) ; 9 years, 
all except (2). Drawing of square showed poor coordina- 
tions ; attempts at drawing rhomboid very poor. Intro- 
ductory Test : Failure ; correct in 2 r except for triangles. 
Shown how to place pieces of triangle, fails after four trials. 
Construction Test I : 15", 7 moves. Result evidently acci- 
dental. Immediate retrial failure. Arbitrary Association 
Test : Makes many errors in placing figures with model 
before her. Pictorial Completion Test : (Not given with 
standard procedure.) Gives meaning of situations very well 
for age. Auditory Memory Span : 5 numerals correct. 
Memory Span for Syllables : 16 syllables correct. Recites 
Stevenson's " The Shadow " correctly ; cannot give mean- 
ing. School Work : Reading, 1st and 2nd grade passages 
read well. Writing and Spelling : Writing almost illegible ; 
spells simple words orally without errors. Arithmetic : Adds 
combinations of two numbers up to 12, e.g., 7 + 3, 6 + 6, 
etc. 

Case 30. Leonard B. 17 years, 11 months. 

Introductory Test : l' 54", of which 54" was spent on 
triangles. Construction Test I : 33", 7 moves. Construc- 
tion Test II : 55", 14 moves. Cross Line Test I : Correct 
on second trial. Cross Line Test II : Failure after four 
trials ; cannot draw from memory figure used. 

Second Testing two days later : 

Binet : All 12-year tests correct except (5) ; 15 years, 
failure (2) and (3) ; adult tests, all failures. Puzzle Box : 
4' 4", 3 errors. Tapping Test : 87 and 90 squares respec- 
tively on first and second trial, and 1 error, respectively. 



256 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Pictorial Completion Test : 5' 54" ; 1 logical and 1 illogical 
error. Easy Opposites Test : 1 failure ; average time 1.8". 
Kraepelin Subtraction Test : Subtracting 7 from 100, 2' ', 6 
errors. Arbitrary Association Test : 2 errors. (Both figures 
left unnumbered ; 1 and 9 evidently confused.) Cross Line 
Test I : Failure after two trials. Visual Memory — repro- 
duction of Binet figures : Failure after eight trials each after 
new exposure. (Copies figures correctly ; cannot even after 
this draw them from memory.) Memory for Logical Ma- 
terial — visual verbal presentation : 14 of 20 items given ; 
correct sequence. Memory for Logical Material — auditory 
verbal presentation : 8 of 12 items given ; correct sequence. 
Instructions Box : Correct only on fifth trial. Terman Ball 
and Field Test : Very well done. Cancellation Test : Well 
done ; rapid, accurate reactions. Aussage : Free recital, 
11 items ; cross examination, 12 items correct ; 5 errors ; 
answers " Don't know " on 4 items. School Work : 6th- 
grade passage read fluently. Writing and Spelling : Writes 
from dictation " The printer made some cards ", but " The 
revoluntary war was carried on largely under the auspieces 
of the Continaltal Congress." Arithmetic : Adds five 
4-place numerals correctly : fails on long division ; fails to 
add fractions. Oral problems : fails on such examples as 
8 + 7 + 5 — 2X2, and other similar ones. Asked if 1 
dozen apples cost 54 cents, how much will 8 apples cost, 
gives stepj required, but cannot solve. 

Third Testing one week later : 

Puzzle Box : 2' ', 3 errors. Rapidly put box together again. 
Cannot draw recognizable representation of simple ink- 
bottle. 

Case 31. Julian M. 14 years. 

Binet : (1908 series used). All 10, 11, and 12-year tests 
correct. Introductory Test : l' 20". Construction Test I : 
Failure ; 60 moves. Construction Test II : l' 10" (result 
possibly accidental). Puzzle Box : 7', many errors, first 
correct move made at 6'. Instructions Box : Correct on 
third trial. Tapping Test : 82 and 83 squares, respectively, 



APPENDIX 257 

on first and second trial ; 20 and 5 errors respectively. Cross 
Line Test I : Correct on first trial. Cross Line Test II : 
Correct on first trial. Code Test : Failure. 3 symbols 
wrong and 6 dots omitted. Pictorial Completion Test : 
Time? 3 logical and 4 illogical errors. Apperceptions very 
defective. Arbitrary Association Test : No errors. 
Checkers, fails to take advantage of obvious chances. 
School Work : Reading : 6th-grade passage read fluently, 
with good expression. Writing and Spelling : Writes from 
dictation " The printer made some cards." Arithmetic : 
Adds seven 4-place numbers correctly, but slowly. Fails on 
long division ; makes errors in subtraction ; says 18 — 6 = 3. 
Asked if 2\ pounds cost 45 cents, how much will 3J cost? 
answers $6.08. Poorly informed in regard to historical, geo- 
graphical, and local facts. 

Case 32. Alice J. 13 years, 6 months. 

Introductory Test : 31". Construction Test I : 36", 17 
moves. Construction Test II : 6' 43", 58 moves. (Scored 
as failure.) Cross Line Test I : Correct on first trial. Cross 
Line Test II : Correct on first trial. Pictorial Completion 
Test : 2 r 18" ; 2 logical errors. Arbitrary Association Test : 
No errors. Tapping Test : 44 squares in each of two trials ; 
1 and errors respectively. School Work : Reading : 5th- 
grade passage read well ; occasionally slight hesitation. 
Writing and Spelling : Writes from dictation " The printer 
made some cards." Arithmetic : Adds, subtracts, multiplies, 
divides correctly ; adds fractions. 

Second Testing three weeks later : 

Construction Test II : 33", 13 moves. Tapping Test : 
63 and 70 squares respectively ; 8 and 7 errors respectively. 
(Was urged to do better than previously. Made great effort.) 

Case 33. Morgan G. 14 years. 

Binet grade : Through 12-year tests without any failures. 
Introductory Test : 1' 7" ; 22" spent on triangles. Con- 
struction Test I : Failure in 5'. (1 hour later l' 54", 15 
moves.) Construction Test II : 56", 14 moves. Cross Line 



258 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Test I : Correct on first trial. Cross Line Test II : Correct 
on first trial. Pictorial Completion Test : 2' 54", no errors. 
Easy Opposites Test : 2 errors ; average time 2.3 " ; range 
1.2" to 7.8". Kraepelin Subtraction Test : Subtracting 7 
from 100, all wrong ; 4 from 41, l' 10", 4 errors. (Toward 
the end counts by ones.) 3 from 51, 57", 5 errors. (Failed 
again on this test one month later. Then subtracting 7 from 
101, all failure ; continuous addition by 7, beginning with 2, 
2' 20", 3 errors.) Tapping Test : 60 and 57 squares respec- 
tively on first and second trial ; 3 and 5 errors respectively. 
School Work : Reading : 3rd-grade passage fairly well read ; 
knows all words ; somewhat jerky in manner ; reproduction 
correct. Writing and Spelling : Writes from dictation " The 
boy goes to school." Arithmetic : Long division correct. 

Case 34. Henry B. 17 years. 

Binet : All 10 and 12-year tests done promptly ; on 15- 
year tests fails on (3) and (5). Construction Test I : 27", 
9 moves. Construction Test II : l' 57", 17 moves. Cross 
Line Test II : Correct on first trial. Pictorial Completion 
Test : 3' 12" ; 2 logical errors. Tapping Test : 62 and 80 
squares respectively on first and second trial ; 3 and 4 errors 
respectively. Easy Opposites Test : 2 errors and 2 failures ; 
average time 2.3" ; range 1.2" to 6.6". Second trial (new 
list of words) ; 1 error and 2 failures ; average time 2.7" ; 
range 1.2" to 9.8". Kraepelin Subtraction Test : Subtract- 
ing 7 from 100, l' 53", 2 errors. (Frequently says, " J get 
mixed up " or " What did I say last ? ") Subtracting 6 from 
75, 1' 31", 3 errors. Memory for Logical Material — visual 
verbal presentation : 14 of 20 items given ; logical sequence, 
but with little verbal accuracy. Memory for Logical Ma- 
terial — auditory verbal presentation : 8 of 12 items given ; 
incorrect sequence and little verbal accuracy. Woodworth- 
Wells Easy Directions Test : 2' 55", 2 errors ; 3' 54", 2 
errors, second set. Woodworth-Wells Hard Directions Test : 
5 13 , 8 errors. (Could not keep mind on work ; said he 
was not fatigued.) Analogies Test : 4 correct, 1 wrong. 
Terman Arithmetical Reasoning Test : All three correct. 



APPENDIX 259 

School Work : Writing and Spelling : Writes from dictation 
" I hereby apply for a position." Arithmetic : Does long 
division correctly ; cannot do problem in interest. 

Case 35. Celia K. 17 years. 

Binet grade : All 12-year tests correct except (5) ; that 
not given because cannot read English. Construction Test I : 
12", 7 moves. Cross Line Test I : Correct on first trial. 
Cross Line Test II : Correct on first trial. Pictorial Com- 
pletion Test : 3' 56" ; 1 logical and 1 illogical error. Tap- 
ping Test : 72 and 79 squares respectively on first and second 
trial, 3 and 2 errors respectively. School Work : Reads 
little English ; has never attended English speaking school. 
Writing and Spelling : Writes from dictation " The cat run." 
Arithmetic : Adds, subtracts, multiplies correctly ; makes 
careless errors in division. 

Second Testing four months later : 

Construction Test II : 1' 30", 18 moves. School Work : 
Reading : Fails on many words in lst-grade passage. Writ- 
ing and Spelling : Writes from dictation " The boy goes to 
school." Arithmetic : Does problem in long division cor- 
rectly. Fails to make change. 

Third Testing two months after last testing : 

Tapping Test : 73 and 76 squares respectively on first 
and second trial, 3 and errors respectively. Easy Opposites 
Test : No error or failure ; average time 1.8". Kraepelin 
Subtraction Test : Subtracting 6 from 75 ; 52", 1 error. 
Cross Line Test II : Correct on first trial. Counts back- 
ward 20 to in 14" ; counts months backward 20". 

Case 36. Julia D. 15 years. 

Introductory Test : 2' 10". Construction Test I : 5", 
5 moves. Construction Test II : 1' 40", 25 moves. Cross 
Line Test h: Correct on first trial. Cross Line Test II : 
Correct on second trial. Code Test : Failure. Pictorial 
Completion Test : 2' 58" ; 2 logical errors. Arbitrary Asso- 
ciation Test : No errors. 

Second Testing nineteen months later : 



260 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Cross Line Test II : Correct on first trial. Pictorial Com- 
pletion Test : V 30", no errors. Opposites Test : No errors 
or failure ; average time 2.2". Kraepelin Subtraction Test : 
Subtracting 7 from 100 ; V 4", no errors. 

Case 37. Oliver L. 17 years. 

Construction Test I : 35", 9 moves. Construction Test 
II : 47", 13 moves. Cross Line Test II : Correct on first 
trial. Code Test : No symbols wrong, 6 dots omitted ; done 
rapidly ; good method used. Pictorial Completion Test : 
2 f 19", 2 logical errors. Tapping Test : 85 and 87 squares 
respectively on first and second trial ; 1 and errors respec- 
tively. Easy Opposites Test : No errors or failure ; average 
time 1.3". Memory for Logical Material — visual verbal 
presentation : 17 of 20 items given ; correct sequence. 
Memory for Logical Material — auditory verbal presenta- 
tion : 11 of 12 items given ; correct sequence. 



Case 38. Allen B. 13 years. 

Binet : All 10 and 12-year tests correct except 12-year (2). 
(Becomes almost hysterical at absurdities test ; laughs un- 
controlledly.) Construction Test I : l' 27", 20 moves. 
Construction Test II : Failure on first trial ; failure on 
second trial, short time after first. Cross Line Test I : 
Correct on first trial. Cross Line Test II : Failure after 
third trial. Pictorial Completion Test : 3' 22" ; 2 logical 
and 7 illogical errors ; says, " It gets me dizzy." Tapping 
Test : 87 and 82 squares respectively on first and second 
trial ; 2 and 1 error respectively. School Work : Reading : 
5th-grade passage read fluently, but reproduction inaccurate. 
Arithmetic : Knows all fundamental processes ; makes 1 
error in division. 

Second Testing one day later : 

Cross Line Test II : Failure on second trial. Refuses to 
try further. Pictorial Completion Test : 2' 10" ; 8 illogical 
errors. Easy Opposites Test : 6 errors and 1 failure ; aver- 
age time 2.2" ; range l" to 5". Kraepelin Subtraction Test : 



APPENDIX 281 

Subtracting 7 from 100 ; 2' 34", 8 errors. (Refuses to try 
again.) Memory for Logical Material — auditory verbal 
presentation : 7 out of 12 items given ; no attempt at logical 
sequence or verbal accuracy. (Attitude unfavorable.) 

Third Testing one week after last testing : 

Construction Test I : 26", 8 moves. Construction Test 
II : l' 3", 11 moves ; rational method. Cross Line Test II : 
Correct on first trial. Pictorial Completion Test : 5' 24" ; 
1 logical and 6 illogical errors. Easy Opposites Test (new 
list used) : 3 errors and 2 failures ; average time 3". 

Case 39. . 11 years, 6 months. 

First Testing : 

Binet grade : 6f years. Introductory Test : 2' 50"; trial 
and error method on triangles. Construction Test I : Fail- 
ure ; entirely irrational procedure. Memory for Logical 
Material — visual verbal presentation : Only 2 of 20 items 
given. School Work : Reading : Simple 2nd-grade passage 
read slowly, but understandingly ; reproduction fair. Writ- 
ing and Spelling : Writes plainly his own name and a few 
simple words. Arithmetic : Makes simple combinations by 
counting on his fingers, but often errors. Fails to make 
simple change and to add a few coins correctly. 

Second Testing one year and eight months later : 

Binet grade : 7| years. Introductory Test : l' 15"; 20" 
on triangles. Construction Test I : 12", 8 moves. Con- 
struction Test II : Failure. Puzzle Box : Failure. Cross 
Line Test I : Failure on fourth trial. Arbitrary Association 
Learning Test : 5 errors. Auditory Memory Span : 4 nu- 
merals correct. Visual Memory Span : 5 numerals correct. 
Memory for Logical Material — visual verbal presentation : 
9 of 20 items given. Memory for Logical Material — audi- 
tory verbal presentation : 5 of 12 items given. School Work : 
Reading, 3rd-grade passage read fluently. Reproduction 
poor. Writing and Spelling : Writes fairly ; spelling fair 
for simple words. Arithmetic : Fails to add anything except 
the simplest combinations ; fails to make simple change, or 
to add small coins correctly. 



262 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Case 40. Martin T. 16 years. 

Binet grade : 10 years plus 2} tests. (?) Failures : 10 
years, \ of (2), (3), and (4) ; but all 12 years correct. Con- 
struction Test I : 10" 7 moves. Construction Test II : l' 
33", 16 moves. Cross Line Test II : Correct on third trial. 
Pictorial Completion Test : 4' 16", 6 illogical errors. (Re- 
tested next day : 2' 5", 6 illogical errors.) Easy Opposites 
Test : 4 errors and 1 failure ; average time 2.5". Kraepelin 
Subtraction Test : Subtracting 6 from 100, time (?), 2 errors ; 
subtracting 4 from 100, l' 13", 4 errors. School Work : 
Reading : 3rd-grade passage read stumblingly; reproduc- 
tion fairly good. Writing and Spelling : Writes from dicta- 
tion " The parer mad som cars " (The printer made some 
cards). Arithmetic : Adds, subtracts, and multiplies cor- 
rectly. Cannot do long division. Makes change correctly, 
e.g., $2.00 — $1.47 = 53 c\ Oral problems done promptly, 
e.g., 8 pairs of shoes at $1.50 a pair = $12.00. If you had 
some apples and gave away \ and lost \ of those left and 
then had 4, how many did you have at first? 



Case 41. Wilhelmina T. 18 years. 

Introductory Test : l' 50". Construction Test I : Fail- 
ure ; correct only after 5 r 15" and 43 moves. Construction 
Test II : 5' 30", 48 moves. Puzzle Box : Failure ; in 3' 
only 3 moves made ; very stupid performance. Tapping 
Test : 75 and 90 squares respectively on first and second 
trial ; 1 and errors respectively. Cross Line Test I : 
Much difficulty in grasping idea of test ; used as practice 
test. Cross Line Test II : Failure on fourth trial. Arbi- 
trary Association Test : 3 errors ; slowly done. Easy Oppo- 
sites Test : No error or failure ; average time 1.8". Visual 
Memory — reproduction of Binet figures : One figure cor- 
rect ; the other failure. School Work : Reading : 5th-grade 
passage read fluently, with good expression. Writing and 
Spelling : Writes from dictation " The printer made some 
cards." Arithmetic : Does long division correctly ; fails on 
fractions. 



APPENDIX 263 

Case 42. Catherine L. 16 years, 1 month. 

Binet grade : 8J years. Failures : 8 years, (2) and (4) ; 
9 years, (2) and (4) ; 10 years, all tests. Construction Test 
I : Failure ; correct only after 6' 37" with 58 moves. Con- 
struction Test II : Correct only in 6' 10" with 64 moves. 
Cross Line Test I : Failure on fourth trial. Pictorial Com- 
pletion Test : 8' 18", 5 illogical errors ; many absurdities. 

Second Testing two months later : 

Construction Test I : 6", 7 moves. (Evidently remem- 
bered solution.) Construction Test II : 41", 15 moves. 
(Evidently remembered solution.) Cross Line Test I : 
Does not grasp idea. Pictorial Completion Test : 2 f 56", 
1 logical and 5 illogical errors. Arbitrary Association Test : 
Cannot copy numbers. Tapping Test : 50 and 54 squares 
respectively on first and second trial ; 1 error each trial. 
School Work : Cannot read. Writing and Spelling : Cannot 
write. Arithmetic : 4 + 6 + 3+2 = ? Adds slowly by 
ones, but cannot write down the total. 

Third Testing one week later (with interpreter) : 

Binet grade : 9f years. Failures : 8 years, (4) ; 9 years, 
(4) ; 10 years, (2), (3), and (4) ; 12 years, (4) and (5). 
Visual Memory — reproduction of Binet figures : Failure. 
School Work : Arithmetic : Cannot make change, except 
simplest problems, e.g., 25^ — 4^ = 21^, but 50^ — 37^ = ? 

Case 43. Bernard G. 17 years, 8 months. 

Binet grade : 9f years. Failures : 9 years, (4) ; 10 years, 
(1), (3), (4) ; 12 years, (3), (4), and (5). Introductory Test : 
l' ; no difficulty on triangles. Construction Test I : 10", 
5 moves. Remarkably good record. Construction Test II : 
41", 12 moves. Likewise extremely good record. Puzzle 
Box : Failure. Instructions Box : Correct on third trial. 
On previous trials error only on dial. Tapping Test : 98 
and 92 squares, respectively, first and second trial ; 2 and 1 
error respectively. Cross Line Test I : Correct on third 
trial. Cross Line Test II : Failure on fourth trial. Pictorial 
Completion Test : 3', 2 logical and 1 illogical error. Easy 
Opposites Test : 8 errors and 2 failures ; average time 3.5". 



264 PSYCHOLOGY OF ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES 

Arbitrary Association Test : 3 errors. School Work : Fails 
on multiplication and division. 

Case 44. Leo N. 16 years, 6 months. 

No records given ; present standard procedure not used. 

Case 45. James C. 11 years. 

Binet grade : 8f years. Failures : 9 years, (2) and (4) ; 
10 years, all failures. Introductory Test : 3' 28". Con- 
struction Test I : 17", 7 moves. Construction Test II : 
Failure at end of 10'. Puzzle Box : Failure at end of 6', 
during which time no single correct move was made. Cross 
Line Test I : Failure on fourth trial. Cross Line Test II : 
Failure on fourth trial. Easy Opposites Test : 8 failures ; 
average time 2.9". (2 failures possibly due to lack of knowl- 
edge.) School Work : Reading : 3rd-grade passage read 
well ; reproduction accurate but somewhat meager. Writ- 
ing and Spelling : Writes from dictation " The cat ran 
away ", " The printer — some cards." Writes simple stories, 
misspelling only unfamiliar words. Very much better results 
than on performance tests. Arithmetic : Adds correctly ; 
knows multiplication tables through 3*3. 

Case 46. Frederick J. 13 years, 9 months. 

Introductory Test : l' 40". Construction Test I : 17", 
7 moves. Construction Test II : l' 59", 19 moves. Puzzle 
Box : 4' 41", 5 errors. Instructions Box : Correct on second 
trial. Cross Line Test I : Failure on fourth trial. Cross 
Line Test II : Failure on fourth trial. School Work : Read- 
ing : Cannot read lst-grade passage. Writing and Spelling: 
Cannot write any words. Arithmetic : Adds, subtracts, and 
multiplies correctly. Solves correctly examples such as, 
2568 X 396. 

Second Testing 2 years and 5 months later : 

Binet grade : Through 10 years. Failures : 9 years, (2) ; 
10 years, (2) and (5) ; 12 years, (2) and (5). School Work : 
Writes from dictation " The primo sat ctame " (The printer 
made some cards). Arithmetic : Multiplies and divides 
correctly. 



INDEX 



Abbott and Kuhlmann, 89 

Ability, special, in handwork, 
210 ; in language, 204 /. ; in 
number work, 201 ; in rote 
memory, 214 

Ability to follow directions, 
tests for, 20 

Abstractions, defect in form- 
ing, in number work, 69 

Advantage of early study of 
mental processes, 227 

Age to begin study of mental 
processes, 226 

Agraphia, 36 

Aim of education, 41 

Alcoholism, differential diag- 
nosis of, 33 

Alexia, 36, 79 

Amnesia visualis verbalis, 86 

Aphasia, 36; congenital, 83; 
McCall's case of, 83 

Apperception, 17 

Apperceptive ability among 
subnormals, 199 

Arithmetic, defect for, case of, 
56, 61, 65, 67, 69, 72, 73; 
elementary, factors in, 52 

Arithmetical ability, correla- 
tion with memory, 54 

Arithmetical problems, reason- 
ing involved in, 54 

Arithmetical processes, im- 
agery in, 53 ; psychology of, 
50 

Artistic abilities, individual dif- 
ferences in, 164 

Association processes, 18 



Associations, defect in form- 
ing, case of, 61 

Attention, 21 ; defects in, 163 

Attitude, 37 

Auditory powers, defect in, 
92 

Baerwald, Richard, 79 
Bonser, F. G., 19 
Border-line cases of mentality, 

216 
Brissaud, M., 84 
Bronner, A. F., 37 
Burt, Cyril, 3 

Cattell, J. McK., 76 

Chorea, differential diagnosis 
of, 31 

Coffee, excessive use of, 32 

Compensation in mental life, 
12, 224 

Concept of number, defect for 
forming, 65, 67; develop- 
ment of, 51 ff. 

Congenital aphasia, 83 

Congenital word-blindness, 36, 
79 ff. 

Congenital word-deafness, 36, 
90 

Constitutional inferiority, dif- 
ferential diagnosis of, 36 

Control of actions, defects in, 
166 

Correlations, between mental 
functions, 12; in phases of 
memory, 119 

Curricula, different types, 47 



265 



266 



INDEX 



Davenport, C. B., 167 

Dearborn, W. F., 76 

Defect, of inner visual func- 
tions, 128 ; of memory, 118 ; 
in attention, 163; in audi- 
tory memory for numbers, 
case of, 56, 61 ; in auditory 
powers, 92; in control of 
actions, 166; in forming 
abstractions in number work, 
case of, 69; in forming as- 
sociations, case of, 61 ; in 
general language ability, 
case of, 110, 112; in 
imagination, 165; in in- 
ventive ability, 165; in men- 
tal control, case of, 168, 174, 
178, 180, 185, 189, 192; in 
mental representation, 154; 
case of, 156; in number 
work, inadequate testing for, 
72, 73; in perceptions of 
relationship, 159; case of, 
160 ; in perceptual abilities, 
149 ; case of, 150 ; in powers 
of inhibition, 167; in solv- 
ing problems with concrete 
material, case of, 140, 143; 
in speed of reactions, 45; 
case of, 146; in visual 
powers, case of, 97; for 
forming concept of number, 
case of, 65, 67 ; for reading 
due possibly to defect in 
synthetic processes, case of, 
100, 104; for solving prob- 
lems with concrete material, 
138 _ 

Defectives unfit for motor 
training, case of, 197 

Dementia prsecox, 34 

Dewey, John, 42, 50 

Diagnosis, differential, need 
for, 23 

Differential diagnosis, need for, 
23 ; of special ability, 24 

Disabilities, see Defects 



Diseases of the brain, causing 

defects, 36 
Distraetibility, 164 
Dodge and Erdmann, 76 

Eckhardt, K., 52, 53 
Elective courses in schools, 46 ■ 
Elimination from school, 44 
Emotions, testing of, 21 
Epilepsy, differential diag- 
nosis of, 31 
Erdmann and Dodge, 76 
Eye movements in reading, 76 

Feeble-minded, definition of 
British Royal Commission, 
9 note; Illinois statute for 
commitment, 9 note 

Feeble-mindedness, criteria for 
judgment of, 38; diagnosis 
of, 38 

Feebly inhibited, 167 

Foerster, M. R., 84 

Freeman, Frank N., 22, 42 

gulick and atres, 24 

Habituation in teaching 
arithmetic, 54 

Hamilton, Francis, 77 

Handwork, for mental defec- 
tives, 197; special ability 
for, among subnormals, 210 ; 
case of, 211, 212 

Head injuries, affecting dif- 
ferential diagnosis, 35 ; case 
of, 35 

Healy, William, 8, 9, 36, 155, 
168, 205 

Heredity of congenital word- 
blindness, 85 

Hinshelwood, James, 80 

Hollingworth, H. L., 48 

Holmes, Arthur, 139, 145 

Huey, E. B., 77 

Hysteria, differential diag- 
nosis of, 29 ; case of, 30 



INDEX 



267 



Imagery, in arithmetical 

processes, 53; types in 

reading, 78 
Imagination, defects in, 165 
Improvement of defective 

powers, 225 
Inadequate testing for defect in 

number work, case of, 72, 73 
Inhibition, defect in, 167 
Inhibitory mechanism, 168 
Inner speech in relation to 

reading, 77 
Intelligence, measuring of, 14 
Interests, main, in education, 

14 
Inventive ability, 165 

Janet, Pierre, 29 
Judd, C. H., 55 
Judgment, 19 

Kirkpatrick, E. A., 89 
Krueger and Spearman, 3 
Kuhlmann and Abbott, 89 

Ladd and Woodworth, 84 

Language ability, general, de- 
fect in, 110, 112 

Language, defect for, case of, 
92; special ability for, 
among subnormals, 204 /. ; 
case of, 206 ; special ability 
for, among feeble-minded, 
case of, 208 

Lanner, A., 51 

Lay, 89 

Learning ability, individual 
differences in, 165 

Lobsien, M., 54 

Mann, Alfred, 164, note 
Manual skill, 139 
McCall, Eva, 83, 92 
McCready, E. B., 85, 86 
McLennan and Dewey, 50 
Meaning, reproduction of, in 
reading, 77 ff. 



Measuring scales, for achieve- 
ment in school subjects, 44 ; 
of intelligence, 14 

Memory, 17 ; correlation with 
arithmetical ability, 54 ; de- 
feet in auditory, for num- 
bers, case of, 56, 61 ; defects 
of, 118; case of, 120 ff.; 
rote, special ability in, 
among subnormals, 214 

Mental control, 20 ; defect in, 
case of, 168, 174, 178, 180, 
185, 189, 192; correlated 
with unstable nervous organ- 
ization, case of, 174 

Mental processes, groups of, 
13 

Mental representation, 19 ; de- 
fect in, 155 ; case of, 156 

Messmer, I.,. 76 

Method, adaptation to meet 
individual needs, 42 

Methods of teaching number 
work, 55 ; reading, 78 ; spell- 
ing, 88 ff. 

Meumann, Ernst, 50, 51, 52, 75, 
76, 77, 78, 226 

Morgan, W. Pringle, 79 

Movements, eye, in reading, 
76 

Nettleship, E., 81 
Nors worthy, Naomi, 199 
Number concept, development 

of, 51 ff. 
Number work, special ability 

for, among subnormals, 200 ; 

case of, 201 

Pearson, K., 3 

Perception, 16 

Perceptions of relationship, 

defect in, 159; case of, 

160 
Perceptual abilities, defects in, 

149 
Performance tests, 16 



268 



INDEX 



Physical aspects of reading 
process, 76 

Physical conditions, poor, caus- 
ing mental dullness, 24 ff. ; 
case of, 25 

Pintner, R., 77 

Plate, E., 85 

Psychological elements in spell- 
ing, 89 

Psychological laws related to 
learning school subjects, 43 

Psychological processes in read- 
ing process, 77; in spoken 
language, 89 

Psychological tests, in general, 
14 

Psychological unity in lan- 
guage ability, 75 ff. 

Psychology of number, 50 ; 
analysis of, 53 

Psychomotor control, 19 

Psychoses, differential diag- 
nosis of, 34 

Reading defect, correlated 
with visual defect, case of, 
97 ; inadequate testing, case 
of, 108 ; case of, 92, 97, 100, 
104, 108 

Reading process, analysis of, 
77, 78 ; physical aspects, 76 ; 
psychological processes in, 
77 , m 

Reasoning ability, 18 

Reasoning, involved in arith- 
metical problems, 54 

Reproduction of meaning in 
reading, 77 ff. 

Retardation, 6, 44; in arith- 
metic, due to poor teaching, 
56 ; in number work, 55 

Rice, J. M., 88 

Rote memory, special ability 
in, among subnormals, 214; 
case of, 214 

Ruger, A. H., 139 

Rupp, Hans, 165 note 



Seashore, 165 note 

Sensory defects, leading to 
mental dullness, 27 ; case of, 
28 

Sex practices, excessive, 33 

Simulation, 37 

Smoking, excessive, 32 

Spearman, 12 

Spearman and Krueger, 3 

Speed of reactions, defect in, 
145 ; case of, 146 

Spelling, 88 ; methods of teach- 
ing, 88 ff. ; psychological 
elements in, 89 

Spoken language, psychological 
processes in, 89 

Stephenson, Sidney, 81, 85 

Stern, William, 226 

Study of mental processes, 
advantage of early, 227 ; age 
to begin, 226 

Suzzallo, Henry, 2, 50, 54 

Synthesis in the reading pro- 
cess, 79 note 

Synthetic processes, defect in, 
causing reading defect, case 
of, 100, 104 

Tea, excessive use op, 32 
Tests for ability to follow direc- 
tions, 20 ; for apperception, 
17 ; for association, 18 ; for 
attention, 21 ; for emotions, 
21; for judgment, 19; for 
memory, 17; for memory 
span, 18 ; for mental control, 
20; for mental representa- 
tion, 19 ; for perception, 
16; for psychomotor con- 
trol, 19; for reasoning, 18; 
for school subjects, 21 ; in- 
volving concrete material, 
15 
Thomas, C. J., 82, 85, 92 
Thorndike, E. L., 1, 2, 3, 12, 

168 
Town, C. H., 90 



INDEX 



269 



Training, of capacities, 226; 

of defective powers, 225; 

of subnormals, 198 
Truancy, 6 

Ungraded classes, 220 
Unity, psychological, in lan- 
guage ability, 75 ff. 

Van Denburg, 45 

Visual functions, inner, de- 
fects of, 128; case of, 129, 
132 

Visualization in learning arith- 
metic, 53 

Vocational dissatisfactions, 7 

Vocational guidance in rela- 
tion to psychological tests, 
48 



Weidensall, Jean, 10 

Wernicke, C, 84 

Wernicke, Otto, 83 

Whipham, T. R., 83 

Will, 166 

Witmer, Lightner, 86 

Woodworth and Ladd, 84 

Word-blindness, congenital, 36, 
79 ff. ; criteria for diagnosis, 
87 ff.; definition of, 84; 
etiology of, 85; Foerster's 
case, 84 ; Hinshelwood's 
case, 80; Morgan's case, 
79 ; Stephenson's case, 81 ; 
Thomas's case, 82; Wer- 
nicke's ease, 83 ; Whipham's 
case, 83 ; Witmer' s case, 86 

Word-deafness, congenital, 36, 
90 ; Town's case, 90 



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